The Whig party slowly evolved during the 18th century. The Whig tendency supported the Protestant Hanoverian succession and toleration for nonconformist Protestants (the "dissenters," such as Presbyterians), while the Tories supported the exiled Stuart royal family's claims for the throne (Jacobitism), the established Church of England and the gentry. Later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the British Crown. The Whigs were originally also known as the "Country Party" (as opposed to the Tories, the "Court Party"). By the first half of the 19th century, however, the Whig political programme came to encompass not only the supremacy of parliament over the monarch and support for free trade, but Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery and, significantly, expansion of the franchise (suffrage). Eventually the Whigs would evolve into the Liberal Party (while the Tories became the Conservative Party).

·         Tories-The term, derived from Tóraidhe, was originally used to refer to an Irish outlaw and later often applied to any Confederate or Royalist in arms.[1] English and British Tories from the time of the Glorious Revolution up until the Reform Bill of 1832 were characterised by strong monarchist tendencies, support of the Church of England, and hostility to reform, while the Tory Party was an actual organization which held power intermittently throughout the same period.(wikipedia)

·         Rhotic-Of or pertaining to a variety or dialect of English in which r is pronounced not only in pre-vocalic position but also before a consonant or word-finally; characterized by r-pronouncing.

1968 J. C. WELLS in Progress Rep. Phonetics Lab. Univ. Coll. London (unpublished) June 56 It was possible to divide respondents into three categories: A. (non-rhotic) Those who had nonprevocalic r-colouring neither for -er nor for -a; B. (rhotic) Those who had nonprevocalic r-colouring for -er but not for -a; C. (hyperrhotic). 1970 in Jrnl. Linguistics VI. 240 The local accents of the West of England, though..are rhotic. 1982 TRUDGILL & HANNAH Internat. Eng. ii. 13 Rhotic accents are those which actually pronounce /r/, corresponding to orthographic r, in words like far and farm. 1983 Trans. Yorks. Dial. Soc. LXXXIII. 28 Benjamin Disraeli..who from his social background could be expected to have been a ‘non-rhotic’ speaker was in fact ‘rhotic’. 1988 English World-Wide IX. 57 Bansal..recommends a rhotic accent for Indian speakers for better international intelligibility.

Hence rhoticity n., the quality or character of being rhotic; rhoticizing ppl. a. [see -IZE], that renders or tends to make rhotic.

1973 J. C. WELLS Jamaican Pronunc. in London i. 29 The other two characteristics [of an American accent] have been mentioned already. One is the full rhoticity of most kinds of American English. Ibid. v. 99 Adolescents have not been subject to so much rhoticizing pressure. 1983 Trans. Yorks. Dial. Soc. LXXXIII. 28 An r would normally be sounded before a consonant or at the end of a word as well as..before a vowel. This area of ‘rhoticity’ is greater than the comparable one for the non-dialect forms of speech.(OED)

·         Non-rhotic-Of or relating to a dialect in which r is only pronounced in pre-vocalic position; characterized by such a pronunciation.

[1893 J. CLARK Man. Linguistics vii. 181 Wherever, medially, in Italic, an s between two vowels followed an unaccented syllable, the final result gave z in the non-rhotacising dialects, such as Oscan, and r (through z) in the rhotacising dialects, such as Latin and Umbrian.] 1968 J. C. WELLS in Progress Rep. Phonetics Lab. Univ. Coll. London (unpublished) June 56 It was possible to divide respondents into three categories: A. (non-rhotic) Those who had nonprevocalic r-colouring neither for -er nor for -a, [etc.]. 1978 D. ABERCROMBIE in P. Strevens In Honour A. S. Hornby viii. 124 It [sc. RP] is not really representative of accents of English, being, as it is, ‘non-rhotic’ (meaning that r is pronounced only at the beginning, and not at the end, of syllables. 1996 J. J. SMITH Hist. Study Eng. ii. 37 Keats suffered at the hands of his first reviewers, and one of the grounds of their criticism was his habit of rhyming such pairs as higher : Thalia, thorns : fawns,..[etc.] indicating that his accent was non-rhotic.(OED)

·         Polyglossia- The coexistence of two or more languages, or distinct varieties of the same language, within a speech community.

1975 Internat. Migration Rev. 9 350 The language differences involved in all this are considerable, quite sufficient to justify the term ‘diglossia’ (two languages) or even ‘polyglossia’ (several languages). 1985 Amer. Speech 60 163 They all deal with polyglossia in the USA and the need for speakers of nonstandard varieties to vary their speech features in different situations. 2000 M. BAKHTIN in D. Lodge & N. Wood Mod. Crit. &Theory (ed. 2) vi. 124 The speech diversity within language thus has primary importance for the novel. But this speech diversity achieves its full creative consciousness only under conditions of an active polyglossia.(OED)

·         Elocution - Oratorical or literary expression of thought; literary ‘style’ as distinguished from ‘matter’; the power or art of appropriate and effective expression.(OED)

·          I   nkhorn terms: An inkhorn term is any foreign borrowing (or a word created from existing word roots by an English speaker) into English deemed to be unnecessary or overly pretentious, usually from Latin or Greek. Controversy over inkhorn terms was rife between the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries; at the time of the transition between Middle English and Modern English. It was also a time when English was replacing Latin as the main language of science and learning in England, although French was still prevalent. Many new words were being introduced into the language by writers, often self-consciously borrowing from Classical literature. Critics regarded these words as useless, usually requiring knowledge of Latin or Greek to be understood. They also contended that there were words with identical meaning already in English. Some of the terms did indeed seem to fill a semantic gap in English (often technical and scientific words) whereas others coexisted with native (Germanic) words with the same or similar meanings and often supplanted them.
Writers such as Thomas Elyot and George Pettie were enthusiastic borrowers of new words whereas Thomas Wilson and John Cheke argued against them. Many of these so-called inkhorn terms, such as dismiss, celebrate, encyclopedia, commit, capacity and ingenious stayed in the language and are commonly used. Many other neologisms faded soon after they were first used; for example expede which is now all but obsolete although the similar word impede survived. Faced with the influx of these new words from foreign languages, some writers either tried to deliberately resurrect older English words (gleeman for musician, sicker for certainly, inwit for conscience, yblent for confused) or create wholly new words from Germanic roots (endsay for conclusion, yeartide for anniversary, foresayer for prophet).
Few of these words created in opposition to inkhorn terms remained in common usage and the writers who disdained the use of Latinate words often could not avoid using other words of foreign origin. Although the inkhorn controversy was over by the end of the 17th century many writers have attempted to return to what they saw as the purer roots of the language. William Barnes created a whole lexicon of words such as starlore for astronomy and speechcraft for grammar but his words were not widely accepted. Bad writers, and especially scientific, political, and sociological writers, are nearly always haunted by the notion that Latin or Greek words are grander than Saxon ones, and unnecessary words like expedite, ameliorate, predict, extraneous, deracinated, clandestine, subaqueous, and hundreds of others constantly gain ground from their Anglo-Saxon numbers. (Wikipedia)
·         ink-horn term, a term of the literary language, a learned or bookish word; so also ink-horn desire, language, word. arch.

1543 BALE Yet a Course 59b, Soche are your Ynkehorne termes. 1589 PUTTENHAM Eng. Poesie II. xii[i]. (Arb.) 130 Irreuocable, irradiation, depopulation and such like,..which..were long time despised for inkehorne termes. 1589 GREENE Menaphon (Arb.) 51 Wherefore thoughe he had done it of an ink horne desire to be eloquent. 1623 LISLE Ælfric on O. & N. Test. Pref. (1638) 16 Faine to stuffe the text with such fustian, such inkehorne termes, as may seem to favour their parts. 1784 HUTTON Bran New Wark 6 Inkhorn words, to be honest, we knaw lile abaut. 1871 LOWELL Study W. (1886) 330 As if it were a spoken, and not merely an ink-horn language. 1872 W. MINTO Eng. Prose Lit. II. ii. 235 Inkhorn words of Latin origin. (OED)


 
  • Doggerel- A. adj. An epithet applied to comic or burlesque verse, usually of irregular rhythm; or to mean, trivial, or undignified verse.

c1386 CHAUCER Melib. Prol. 7 Now swich a Rym the deuel I biteche This may wel be Rym dogerel quod he. 1494 FABYAN Chron. VII. 294 For thoughe I shulde all day tell Or chat with my ryme dogerell. 1526 SKELTON Magnyf. 413 In bastarde ryme after the doggrell gyse. 1589 PUTTENHAM Eng. Poesie II. iv. (Arb.) 89 A rymer that will be tyed to no rules at all..such maner of Poesie is called in our vulgar, ryme dogrell. 1630 J. TAYLOR (Water P.) Dogge of Warre Wks. II. 226/1 In doggrell Rimes my Lines are writ As for a Dogge I thought it fit. 1711 ADDISON Spect. No. 60 {page}11 The double Rhymes, which are used in Doggerel Poetry. 1789 BELSHAM Ess. I. xii. 233 The vile doggrel translation of Hobbes. 1868 STANLEY Westm. Abb. v. 397 The doggrel epitaphs which were hung over the royal tombs.

 b. transf. Bastard, burlesque.

1550 BALE Apol. 93 (R.) The diuinite doggerell of that dronken papist Johan Eckius. 1873 G. C. DAVIES Mount. & Mere xix. 177 A doggrel form of prayer.

    B. n. Doggerel verse; burlesque poetry of irregular rhythm; bad or trivial verse.

1630 Tincker of Turvey Ep. Ded. 5 Clownes [have here] plaine dunstable dogrell, for them to laugh at. 1710 ADDISON Whig Exam. No. 1 {page}14 He has a happy talent at doggrel. 1880 L. STEPHEN Pope iii. 71 Chapman..sins..by constantly indulging in sheer doggerel.

    b. A piece of doggerel; a doggerel poem.

1857 O. A. BROWNSON Convert Wks. V. 120 The electioneering campaign of 1840, carried on by doggerels [etc.]. 1892 ANNE RITCHIE Rec. Tennyson, etc. III. vii. 216 A doggerel always had a curious fascination for him [Browning].

    Hence {sm}dogg(e)rel v., -ize v., intr. to compose doggerel; trans. to turn into doggerel; {sm}dogg(e)reler, -ist, -izer, a writer of doggerel; {sm}dogg(e)relism, a doggerel manner of writing.

1680 R. L'ESTRANGE Answ. Litter Libels 9 His Ranging of them Together is a kinde of a Doggrilism. 1732 Gentl. Instructed (ed. 10) 43 (D.) Were I disposed to doggrel it, I would only gloss upon that text. 1817 Monthly Mag. XLIII. 421 The Scotch doggerelist. 1821 Blackw. Mag. X. 388 The Atys, which..Mr. Lambe has so cruelly doggrelized. 1822 Ibid. XI. 363 These dabbling doggrelers. 1832 SOUTHEY Lett. (1856) IV. 259 Some true doggrelizers. 1850 READE Chr. Johnstone vi. (1853) 65 He had been doggrelling when he ought to have been daubing. (OED)

  • Shibboleth: is a custom, phrase or use of language that acts as a test of belonging to a particular social group or class. By definition, it is used to exclude those deemed unsuitable to join this group.(http://www.tate.org.uk/modern/exhibitions/dorissalcedo/default.shtm)
  • Pidginization, n. The fact or process of producing a simplified or hybrid language; (concr.) a pidginized language.

1934 R. C. PRIEBSCH & W. E. COLLINSON German Lang. I. ii. 35 This ‘pidginization’ [in Afrikaans] is thought to be due to sudden contact with a Creolized language, in this case a blend called Malayo-Portuguese. 1956 J. LOTZ in S. Saporta & J. R. Bastian Psycholinguistics (1961) 14/1 Various attempts at an international language like Esperanto or Basic English either end up as incomplete replicas of natural languages or as primitive pidginizations. 1993 Eng. Today Apr. 18/2 This restricted code is a pidginisation of the language.(OED)

 

  • Pidgin, n. Originally: pidgin English. Subsequently gen.: a language containing lexical and other features from two or more languages, characteristically with simplified grammar and a smaller vocabulary than the languages from which it is derived, used for communication between people not having a common language; a lingua franca.
          Freq. used to denote languages which are spoken as a second language by all their users, but also for the first languages of certain regions. Cf. CREOLE n. 2. 1869 Galaxy Apr. 599 An Englishman lately translated into Pigeon the familiar address ‘My name is Norval; on the Grampian Hills my father feeds his flocks’, and the result was{em}‘My name b'long Norval. Top side Keh-lam-pian hill; my fader chow-chow he sheep’. a1894 R. L. STEVENSON In South Seas (1896) I. ii. 9 The natives themselves have often scraped up a little English, and in the French zone (though far less commonly) a little French-English, or an efficient pidgin, what is called to the westward ‘Beach-la-Mar’, comes easy to the Polynesian. 1943 R. A. HALL Melanesian Pidgin Eng. 9 In the absence of native speakers, Pidgin does not present the same constant features of pronunciation and grammatical usage as do major languages. 1978 Verbatim Feb. 10/1 Both authors hold to..the Creolist theory, which traces the present-day Black English vernacular to a Plantation Creole, to a plantation-maritime pidgin, to an African origin. 1996 Eng. Today Oct. 54/1 A language that some scholars today..call Cameroon Pidgin, an English-related West African coastal pidgin. (OED)
  • Ablaut-Vowel permutation; systematic passage of the root vowel into others in derivation, as in sing, sang, song, sung, apart from the phonetic influence of a succeeding vowel as in umlaut. (OED)
  • Calque, loan translation.an expression introduced into one language by translating it from another language (Wordreference.com) .As Miguel Fuster says in Working with Words. An Introduction to English Linguistics (2008: 200), the source language senses are copied when speakers make use of calques, but their native morphology is retained as in Modern Spanish rascacielos, where the concept of English skyscraper has been adopted.
     

·         Synchronic-Linguistics. [tr. F. synchronique (F. de Saussure a 1913, in Cours de linguistique générale (1916) iii. 117).] Pertaining to or designating a method of linguistic study concerned with the state of a language at one time, past or present; descriptive, as opposed to historical or diachronic. Also transf. in Anthropology, etc. (OED)

·         Diachronic-Linguistics. [tr. F. diachronique (F. de Saussure a 1913, in Cours de linguistique générale (1916) iii. 120).] Pertaining to or designating a method of linguistic study concerned with the historical development of a language; historical, as opposed to descriptive or synchronic. Also transf., in Anthropology, etc. Hence diachronically adv.; diachrony. (OED)

·         Unattested: un, prefix-expressing negation, representing OE. un-, = OFris. un-, on-, oen- (WFris. ûn-, on-, EFris. ûn-, NFris. ün-), MDu. (and Du.) on-, OS. (MLG., LG.), OHG. (MLG., G.), and Goth. un-, ON. ú-, ó- (Icel. ó-, Sw. o-, Norw. and Da. u-), corresponding to OIr. in-, an-, L. in- (im-, il-, ir-, i-), Gr. -, -, Arm. an-, Skr. an-, a-, Indo-Eur. *, an ablaut-variant of ne not: see NE adv. The prefix has been very extensively employed in English, as in the other Germanic languages, and is now the one which can be used with the greatest freedom in new formations. ­+ tested-test,v.-To subject to a test of any kind; to try, put to the proof; to ascertain the existence, genuineness, or quality of. to test out, to put (a theory, etc.) to a practical test.(OED) unattested adj. not existing in any documented form: if a will contains unattested changes, the changes will be disregarded although large masonry instruments were not unattested in the world, they were constructed infrequently. • Linguistics denoting a form or usage ...(Oxford Reference)

·         Deviant,n-Something that deviates from normal. (OED)

·         interlanguage, n. Add:    2. Linguistics. A linguistic system typically developed by a student before acquiring fluency in a foreign language, and containing elements of both his or her native tongue and of the target language.(OED)

·         inherent,n.-1. Sticking in; fixed, situated, or contained in something (in physical sense). Const. in, rarely to. Now rare or Obs. 2. fig. Cleaving fast, remaining, or abiding in some thing or person; permanently indwelling. Now rare or Obs. 3. Existing in something as a permanent attribute or quality; forming an element, esp. a characteristic or essential element of something; belonging to the intrinsic nature of that which is spoken of; indwelling, intrinsic, essential.  b. Const. in; formerly to, unto. 4. Vested in or attached to a person, office, etc., as a right or privilege. B. n. Something inherent or indwelling. rare. (OED)

·         prescriptive,adj.-That prescribes or directs; giving definite, precise directions or instructions. In later use, in Linguistics: that lays down rules of usage. (OED)

·         descripive,adj.- Having the quality or function of describing; serving to describe; characterized by description.( In Linguistics, opposed to descriptive, OED)or  assigning a quality rather than restricting the application of the expression modified (Oxford Reference) 

·         Dichotomy,n-  1. Division of a whole into two parts.    a. spec. in Logic, etc.: Division of a class or genus into two lower mutually exclusive classes or genera; binary classification.(OED)

·         AFRICAN-AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH . Terms in SOCIOLINGUISTICS for English as used by a majority of US citizens of Black African background, consisting of a range of socially stratified urban and rural dialects. The most non-standard varieties are used by poor blacks with limited ... (From Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language in English Language Reference)

  • disglossia the widespread existence within a society of sharply divergent formal and informal varieties of a language each used in different social contexts or for performing different functions, as the existence of Katharevusa and Demotic in modern Greece.(Dictionary.com)