Daniel Defoe

DOC. 4

Pierre NORDON, cdrom Encyclopædia Universalis, 3.0

Daniel Defoe

Novelist, lampoonist, man of action, Daniel Defoe were born and died in London. Its origins, its career and its work very
largely reflect the ideology of the English middle class starting from XVIIIe century.

The generation of which Defoe forms part is very exactly that of«the peaceful revolution»of 1688. This event devotes the defeat
of the monarchical theories absolutists and divine right. In addition, it places the nation within a political framework suitable to
reconcile, in theory and in practice, industrial revolution , liberal doctrines, mercenary attitude, imperialism and individualism.

Businessman

The Defoe family was originating in Flandres. James, father of Daniel, held a shop of candles in the popular district of
Cripplegate. Protesting not Anglican, but of moderated tendency, i.e. to the gap of the puritan movement, it entrusted the
education of his son to the reverend Charles Morton, director of a deprived institution non conformist in Newington Green,
close to London. The biographers of Defoe grant to Morton, which was to become vice-rector of the Harvard university
thereafter, a capital influence on the literary vocation of the future novelist. In accordance with the wishes of its entourage, this
last considered nevertheless an ecclesiastical career. After having finished its studies, it seems to be during some time delivered
to an activity of preacher. But its interest for the life practises carried it very quickly: towards 1682 starts for Defoe an active
existence, extremely varied and always a little mysterious. During twenty years it will deal with various businesses. Which?
Trade, speculation, businesses political, the whole together. This passage of the public with deprived, and conversely, is very
characteristic of the time and manners. Never in the English political life the border between amateurs and professionals was not
so fuzzy. (Let us note in the passing which today still the term of business is invested of a semantic value good broader than it is
the term corresponding in French.) On business«», therefore, Defoe frequently will travel to England and abroad. In 1684, it
marries certain Mary Tuffley, which one does not know large-thing, if not which his/her father was a rather easy wine importer.
The dowry which it accepted made it possible Defoe to extend its activity to wholesale, with businesses of import and export,
with the insurances. But in 1692, it goes bankrupt and is debtor of a sum of 17' 000 pounds. This catastrophe will place it for
very a long time in a situation of dependence: from where need for him for getting from now on the protection of influential
characters.

Politician

Nothing would however be more unjust than to see in Defoe only one racketeer or opportunist. Its political positions continue
courageously as of 1685, at the time of the rebellion directed by the duke of Monmouth in the counties of South-west. It joined
the insurrectionists and, after the defeat that inflict to them the royal troops on the battle field of Sedgemoor, succeeds in
escaping the often cruel repression whose the prisoners are victims. In 1688, it will think of joining the forces of Guillaume d'
Orange and of taking part in the forwarding of Ireland. It leaves London, then, a few days later, grains path. Always it is that
the following year it publishes an anonymous lampoon, Réflexions on the recent revolution. It is there the first text of a rich
political bibliography several hundreds of bonds. Little by little Defoe will become the official defender of Guillaume III and the
new mode. In 1701, it publishes a satire entitled the Englishman of good stock (The True-Born Englishman ) in response to
an attack directed against« the mode from abroad»and which, of course, aims at the person of the new sovereign. Defoe points
out that well few good citizens of England can be prided of a purely English origin. That it has implicitly refers to its own case is
not any doubt. It is wise to recall on this subject which the hero of Robinson Crusoé is precisely of German ascent. In 1701,
on the business known as of«the five gentlemen of Kent», imprisoned to have required Parliament a decision concerning the
resumption of the war against France, Defoe speaks again. The success of its lampoon, known as of«the légionaries»(Legion
Memorial ), leads to the setting in freedom of the accused and constitutes for the writer a true triumph. Become here one of the
heads thinking and acting of the party whig. In 1702, it publishes one of its more famous lampoons, the fastest Means to finish
some with the dissidents (The Shortest Way with the Dissenters ). In response to an attack launched against the
nonconformists by the Sacheverell theologist, Defoe makes pretence defend the greatest intransigence in order to cause a
movement of protest near the liberals. This pretence, which is not without pointing out the processes of the irony swiftienne,
made scandal. Continuations are committed against the author. After having concealed itself with justice and to have lived in
clandestinity, Defoe is stopped in May 1703. It is imprisoned, put at the pilori; released a few weeks later thanks to the
intervention of Harley, one of the most influential statesmen and most skilful of the time, Defoe is put at the service of this last.
During eleven years he is his right-hand man , trip constantly in England and in Scotland, writes confidential reports/ratios and
serves private propaganda of its guard. He melts and directs a political newspaper, the Review (The Review), devoted with the
intentions of Harley. When in 1710 this one agrees to be placed at the head of a ministry tory, Defoe remains to him faithful.
But in 1714, after the fall of the tories, it will return to the service of the whigs and a perfect fidelity will dedicate to them.

Novelist

Robinson Crusoé is published in 1719. It is an imaginary account inspired by the adventure of the sailor shelled Alexandre
Selkirk. Success is immediate and considerable: Defoe will take an action pursuant to him and will devote from now on to the
romantic literature most of its activity. Capitaine Singleton appears in 1720, Moll Flanders , the Newspaper of the year of
plague (A Newspaper of the Plague Year ) and Colonel Jack appear in 1722, Roxana in 1724.

Of what does consist the originality of the novelist? Which are its aesthetic, historical, philosophical contributions?

Initially, Defoe is a supremely skilful illusionnist. Come with the novel with a long experiment from observer and journalist, it
excels in art to create the impression of reality, of the detail observed or lived. This art of the horn-the eye finds at the same
time its equivalent in painting. But if he is perhaps not the creator of the English novel, Defoe is, undoubtedly, the most eminent
popularizer of imaginary realism. For this reason, its influence on all the more or less fictionalized forms of the modern historical
account is truly immense. Thus Newspaper of the year of the plague : Defoe was only five years old at the time of the great
plague of London and it goes without saying it had directly been able to observe the majority of the scenes only it describes in
this work. Its account however carries the mark of ocular testimony thanks to the intervention of wrongfully realistic details.
Does the author describe a burial?«It was difficult for me to follow the scene in all its details, for I was with the last rows of the
assistance and, in front of me, a man of high size stopped me partially the sight.»This kind of lucky find abounds in the novels:
Crusoé has just discovered on the sand of its island a mysterious print of step: the novelist benefits from it to make a true
phenomenologic inventory list of the fear.

The realism of Defoe is psychological: it is that which confers to the characters their so characteristic relief. But, here still, the
illusion intervenes: the faculty of introspection of the characters - in accounts with the first nobody, like Crusoé orMoll
Flanders - betrays the voting right of the novelist and it is not very probable if one tries hard to bring it closer to the relatively
naive psychology which is the common denominator of these characters. Why did one so often describe like
heroes«middle-class» or, at least, characteristic of the new English middle class? It is, initially, which they form part and which,
consequently, the reader hardly tests of difficulty to be identified with them. They reveal some ideological contradictions. Their
ladder of securities expresses and represents the evolution achieved by the English company during XVIIe century. Without the
beyond losing its rights on the consciences, the wordly goods and the money in particular are recognized like the legitimate
objective of the individual effort. Work ceases being the price of the original sin: now developed here as well morally as
economically. Productivity, material and technological progress becomes, with their theoretical corollaries, the implicit
requirements of the new command in which the characters of Defoe take part. Of all the accounts of the novelist, most
representative, if not most perfect, is obviously Robinson Crusoé. The central episode constitutes in truth épopée, that of the
white man, of which it exalte economic securities, morals and chocolate éclairs. The large colonial company of XVIIIe and
XIXe centuries finds its justifications there. But the beyond remains present and, like that of the other heroes of Defoe, the
adventure of Crusoé comprises a spiritual dimension which arose with the puritan tradition, that of Bunyan. Crusoé goes from
the error to the truth, according to the impenetrable ways of providence, and little by little, between the man and God is
established a direct dialogue, that of the solitary and guilty conscience. Lastly, the to some extent monarchical statute of which it
me is invested makes of this novel - just like of Moll Flanders or Colonel Jack - a true " novel of education " (Romance
Bildungs ), in the sense that was to hear it, not Jean-Jacques Rousseau, but Goethe.

Although it supports on vision at the same time sceptical and stoical of human nature - a vision which is that of Hobbes and will
be that of Darwin -, the philosophy of Daniel Defoe leads to the optimism of the effort and is based on the securities of time;
and although, by certain sides (broad popularity, mythical value, role of imagination), it resembles to him, the work of Daniel
Defoe is opposed radically, on this most important point, with that of its large contemporary, Jonathan Swift.

Click here