James Milroy: Some new perspectives on sound change: sociolinguistics and the Neogrammarians.
146-160.
Answer the following questions using the book and other sources.
Why does Milroy say that sound change appears to have no “obvious function or rational motivation” (146)?
Because he holds that sound change is arbitrary and does not obey to any logical reason or rule. Indeed, he describes sound change as “probably the most mysterious aspect of change in language”.
What is/are the main difference/s between Milroy’s approach and that of the Neogrammarians (147-148)?
The main difference is that Neogrammarians understand language as an object, without taking into account the role of speakers in the process of language change, while Milroy holds a sociolinguistic approach to language, which emphasises the importance of social factors in language change. Another thing is that Neogrammarians focus on written data rather than on observation of spoken discorse; in contrast, Milroy thinks of the latter as being essential in the study of language change.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines “Neogrammarian” in terms of “a linguist holding the view that phonetic changes operate without exception”. It is a very clear-cut definition that perfectly illustrates the main difference between this approach and that of the sociolinguists like Milroy.
According to Milroy, what is language change dependent on? (149?)
It depends mainly on the desire expressed by the speech community to maintain local norms or to adopt new external norms of language; therefore, it is a question of maintenance of the “old” forms and “social acceptance” of the new forms.
Why does Milroy say that sound change actually doesn’t exist (150)?
Because he understands that sound change does not occur in a literal sense, that is to say, physically and in a sudden way (as said by Neogrammarians), but it happens following a gradual process in the course of time.
Why does Milroy disagree with the Neogrammarians when they say that sound change is “blind” (150)?
Because Neogrammarians consider that sound change is the result of internal language processes without taking into account the social dimension of language, which is clearly opposed to Milroy’s view, focused mainly on the social aspects that surround language change.
What is meant by “lexical diffusion” (151)?
“Lexical diffusion” is a model of sound change based on the belief that sound-changes spread through the lexicon gradually, in contrast to the Neogrammarian approach, which holds that sound change is phonetically gradual and lexically sudden.
What does dialect displacement mean? Give an example. (152)
A dialect displacement occurs when a variety or language disappears and is replaced by another variety or language. The displacement can be due to social or political reasons. One example of this is provided by Milroy in the text, when he mentions the gradual displacement of heavily inflected West Midland dialects of Middle English by weakly inflected East Midland dialects.
What are “community” or “vernacular” norms? What term that we have used in class is similar (152)?
The OED (Oxford English Dictionary) gives the following definition of the term “vernacular”: “that writes, uses, or speaks the native or indigenous language of a country or district”.
Therefore, vernacular norms can be identified as the local norms agreed on socially by the members of a particular speech community, which typically differ from other norms belonging to other communities and thus give rise to the coexistence of several varieties (dialects) within the same language.
What does Milroy mean when he says that h-dropping may not ever reach “completion” (153)?
He is trying to explain us that perhaps this sound-change will never be adopted by all the members of the speech community and so it will never be considered “standard” or “normative” inside the language system.
Explain what Milroy means by “speaker innovation” and change in the system. How are they connected (153)?
Milroy thinks that speakers play a crucial role in language change. Thus, when a particular speaker or group of speakers introduce an innovation in the language structure, it may spread through the speech community and gradually become accepted by more and more members, until it is understood as a change in the language system.
Why does believing in the ideology of standardization lead to believing in “blind necessity” (158)?
The standard language is the result of a prescriptive way of thinking, which determines how people should speak. It has been created by organisms like the army or government since they were obviously the ones which had the power to decide what variety of language would be the dominant.
What does Milroy mean by “clean” and “dirty” data (158)?
Clean data refers to the notion of the “clearness” and “uniformity” that investigators encounter when analysing standard languages, whereas dirty data refers to the “irregularity” and “chaos” which is inherent to vernacular varieties of language. The former, then, is linked to the notion of uniformity and standarization of language, whereas the latter is related to the idea of variability and language change.
Ana Albalat Mascarell
March, 2009