QUESTIONS OF CLASS

. What is more common in language uniformity or variability?

Variability is more common in language.

. What kinds of variability exist?

Variability ist seen in different areas such as Geographical (differents dialects), Historical and Social context (Formality, Grammar, Registers, etc.)

. How do we decide if a particular group of speakers belong to a particular dialect or language?

We know that a group of speakers belong to a dialect or language by observing their Grammar, Phonetics, Basic Linguistics, and also the Geographic, Historical, Economy and Political aspects in their languages.

. Saussure emphasized the importance of synchronic descriptions of languages rather than diachronic. He and is disciples (structuralists) focused on language at different periods as finite entities. Is this reasonable?

This is unreasonable. The languages are variable, so they change constantly. It´s more reasonable to study diachronic linguistics to observe the looks and changes from one period to another, rather than studying the phonological aspects of a language at a stated time.

. The unattested states of language were seen as transitional stages in which the structure of a language was, as it were, disturbed. This made linguistic change look abnormal. Is it abnormal?

No, it isn´t abnormal.

. Milroy (1992: 3) says “the equation of uniformity with structuredness or regularity is most evident in popular (non-professional) attitudes to language: one variety –usually a standard language – is considered to be correct and regular, and others –usually ‘non-standard’ dialects – are thought to be incorrect, irregular, ungrammatical and deviant. Furthermore, linguistic changes in progress are commonly perceived as ‘errors’. Thus although everyone knows that language is variable, many people believe that invariance is nonetheless to be desired, and professional scholars of language have not been immune to the consequences of these same beliefs.”

. Can you think of any example of non-professional attitudes to your own language?

One example of non-professional or non-linguistic attitudes in our language (Spanish) is the word “To´” instead of “Todo” or another would be the word “pa´” in place of “para”.

. Why does Milroy use “scare quotes” around non-standard and errors?

Milroy uses quotes toindicate that he doenn´t accept the term, expressing skepticism that its use is appropiate, suggesting that its use is ironic, or making some other criticism of its use.

. Are non-standard dialects “incorrect, irregular, ungrammatical and deviant.”?

No, non-standards dialects has it own vocabulary and internally consistent grammar and sintax. Also, it ay be spoken using different accents.

. Which of these systems is more irregular? Why?

The first row is more irregular, being the second one more regular, because the words are all composed of the possessive forms of the pronouns and -self or -selves. And we can see this in the two exceptions that are himself and themselves.

“… much of the change generally accepted body of knowledge on which theories of change are based depends on quite narrow interpretations of written data and econtexutalized citation forms (whether written or spoken), rather than on observation of spoken language in context (situated speech). (Milroy 1992: 5) Why do you think this is so?

Any description of a language involves norms? Think of the descriptions of your own language. Why is this so? For example: He ate the pie already is considered to be non-standard in which variety of English and perfectly acceptable in which other?

What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammars?

Weinreich, Labov and Herzog’s (1968) empirical foundations of language change:

Constraints: what changes are possible and what are not

Embedding: how change spreads from a central point through a speech community

Evaluation: social responses to language change (prestige overt and covert attitudes to language, linguistic stereotyping and notions on correctness).

Transition: “the intervening stages which can be observed, or which must be posited, between any two forms of a language defined for a language community at different times” Weinreich, Labov and Herzog 1968: 101)

Actuation: Why particular changes take place at a particular time.

What do you think the “prestige motivation for change” and the “solidarity constraint” mean? How are they opposed?

Sound change: post-vocalic /r/ in New York/ The change from long āto ōin some dialects of English.

Actuation: Why did /k/ palatalize before certain front vowels? PrsE: cheese, German käse English/Norse doublets shirt/skirt?

What is the biological metaphor in language change?

What is the difference between internal and external histories of a language?

Look up Neogrammarians and lexical diffusion. Why are they often found in the same paragraph or chapter?

Look up social norm-enforcement, childish errors and slips of the tongue. What have they to do with language change?

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