James Milroy: Language Change and Variation

What is more common in language uniformity or variability?

In language variability is more common. We can make reference to a Milroy’s quote: ‘[...] at any given time language is variable’

What kinds of variability exist?

Geographical, social and historical.

How do we decide if a particular group of speakers belong to a particular dialect or language?

Saussure emphasized the importance of synchronic descriptions of languages rather than diachronic. He and his disciples (structuralists) focused on language at different periods as finite entities. Is this reasonable?

The unattested states of language were seen as transitional stages in which the structure of a language was, as it were, disturbed. This made linguistic change look abnormal. Is it abnormal?

Linguistic change is not abnormal- languages naturally undergo changes and transitional evolution. These changes don’t reflect a disturbed structure of a language they simply show us that languages have a progress to adapt to every situation it face up to.

Milroy (1992: 3) says “the equation of uniformity with structuredness or regularity is most evident in popular (non-professional) attitudes to language: one variety –usually a standard language – is considered to be correct and regular, and others –usually ‘non-standard’ dialects – are thought to be incorrect, irregular, ungrammatical and deviant. Furthermore, linguistic changes in progress are commonly perceived as ‘errors’. Thus although everyone knows that language is variable, many people believe that invariance is nonetheless to be desired, and professional scholars of language have not been immune to the consequences of these same beliefs.”

Can you think of any example of non-professional attitudes to your own language?

In my matternal languages, which are Spanish and Valenciano/Catalán, we could find a lot of examples of non-professional attitudes.

Why does Milroy use “scare quotes” around non-standard and errors?

Milroy uses “scare quotes” to show us that he doesn’t accept the term. He uses them because the equation of uniformity with structuredness or regularity is most evident in non-professional (popular) attitudes to language: one variety is considered to be correct and regular but others (non-standard) are considered to be ungrammatical. Linguistic changes in progress are commonly perceived as “errors”.

Are non-standard dialects “incorrect, irregular, ungrammatical and deviant.”?

Although non-standard dialects are not considered to have institutional support that doesn’t mean that those dialects have their own vocabulary and expression, their own grammar and their own speech. We know that they are not correct but I think we can accept them.

Which of these systems is more irregular? Why?

The first column is used as the standard system but that does not mean that it is the most regular one. The second column is more regular than the first because the words are all composed of the possessive form of the pronouns. We have never noticed it because we have always learnt the standard style, however, one day, when I was teaching it to a child he asked me why they are formed in the second way and not in the first one and I realised that the second form is more regular.

“… much of the change generally accepted body of knowledge on which theories of change are based depends on quite narrow interpretations of written data and decontextualized citation forms (whether written or spoken), rather than on observation of spoken language in context (situated speech). (Milroy 1992: 5) Why do you think this is so?

I believe that this is due to the extreme variability of spoken language in context.

Any description of a language involves norms? Think of the descriptions of your own language. Why is this so? For example: He ate the pie already is considered to be non-standard in which variety of English and perfectly acceptable in which other?

We know that any description of a language involves rules and norms but when we are speaking that rules are not considered. We have a tendency to make ‘errors’ in speech, but most of the people who do it know that they are not following the correct rule.

What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammars?

Descriptive Grammar: A descriptive grammar looks at the way a language is actually used by its speakers and then attempts to analyse it and formulate rules about the structure. Descriptive grammar does not deal with what is good or bad language use; forms and structures that might not be used by speakers of Standard English would be regarded as valid and included. It is a grammar based on the way a language actually is and not how some think it should be.

Weinreich, Labov and Herzog’s (1968) empirical foundations of language change:

What do you think the “prestige motivation for change” and the “solidarity constraint” mean? How are they opposed?

Sound change: post-vocalic /r/ in New York/ The change from long ā to ō in some dialects of English.

Post-vocalic /r/ in New York: Many of us who speak English as a native language pronounce words like darling, far, bore or near the same as we write them: with vowel followed by r in the same syllable. But there are many other English speakers who do not pronounce the r - sound in this place (called ‘postvocalic r’) - although they have the sound everywhere else, like at the beginning of a word. American speakers who most commonly drop the r (in what follows we’ll occasionally call this the ‘r-less’ pronunciation) are those from Eastern New England and parts of the South, particularly the coastal area where the old ‘plantation’ culture once existed. It is also part of Black English Vernacular speech. Until recently, dropping the r was part of New York speech as well, though more and more New Yorkers seem to be perceiving it as ‘vulgar’ and avoiding this pronunciation.

The change from long ā to ō in some dialects of English: The father-bother merger is a merger of the Early Modern English vowels /ɑː/ and /ɒ/ that occurs in almost all varieties of North American English (exceptions are accents in north-eastern New England, such as the Boston accent, and in New York City). In those accents with the merger father and bother rhyme, and Kahn and con are homophonous as [kɑn]. Unrounding of EME /ɒ/ is found also in Norwich, the West Country, and the West Midlands and in Hiberno-English, but apparently with no phonemic merger.

Actuation: Why did /k/ palatalize before certain front vowels? PrsE: cheese, German käse English/Norse doublets shirt/skirt?

What is the biological metaphor in language change?

What is the difference between internal and external histories of a language?

http://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_InternalExternal.htm

Look up Neogrammarians and lexical diffusion. Why are they often found in the same paragraph or chapter?

Look up social norm-enforcement, childish errors and slips of the tongue. What have they to do with language change?

Norm enforcement: The norm enforcement function derives from the idea that certain public tasks can be delegated to international organizations to perform. Key factor: it depends on voluntary compliance -- i.e. legitimacy. Unlike a national government, where if a norm is violated intentionally, a violator can be thrown in jail or assessed a collectable fine (use of coercion), or given tax breaks or government investment to provide an incentive to comply (utilitarian power), the only method of imposing compliance at the international level is a form of international "shaming." As in a small community, this often works.

http://classes.maxwell.syr.edu/intlmgt/sessions/norm/Normenforcementlecture.htm

Childish errors: children often make mistakes due to their lack of knowledge of possible linguistic irregularities.

Slips of the tongue: is an error in speaking in which a word is pronounced incorrectly, or in which the speaker says something unintentionally.

http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/slip+of+the+tongue

Academic year 2008/2009
© Raúl Gisbert Cantó
giscan@alumni.uv.es
Universitat de València Press