1- What is more common in language uniformity or variability?
Variability is more common in language.
2-What kinds of variability exist?
Social, geographical, register and idiolect variability.
3-How do we decide if a particular group of speakers belong to a particular dialect or language?
To identify certain dialects or languages we have to listen to the pronunciation of the words and the vocabulary the speaker uses
4- Saussure emphasized the importance of synchronic descriptions of languages rather than diachronic. He and his disciples (structuralists) focused on language at different periods as finite entities. Is this reasonable?
Synchronic descriptions focus on the study of the language in particular periods of time. This is not reasonable because languages are constantly changing and they cannot be cut and divided into closed periods.
5- The unattested states of language were seen as transitional stages in which the structure of a language was, as it were, disturbed. This made linguistic change look abnormal. Is it abnormal?
6- Can you think of any example of non-professional attitudes to your own language?
7-Why does Milroy use 'scare quotes' around non-standard and errors?
Milroy uses the scare-quotes because he writes something but it is not really his opinion.
8- Are non-standard dialects 'incorrect, irregular, ungrammatical and deviant.'?
Non-standard dialects are not incorrect or deviant; they are just out of the standard language, but are acceptable.
9- Which of these systems is more irregular? Why?
The first column contains standard words but in the second column there are more regular words, i.e., they are more used.
10- '… much of the change generally accepted body of knowledge on which theories of change are based depends on quite narrow interpretations of written data and contextualized citation forms (whether written or spoken), rather than on observation of spoken language in context (situated speech). (Milroy 1992: 5) Why do you think this is so?
This is because spoken language changes very quickly and then it is followed by the written language. When new words are borrowed or created they are not always finally accepted, and you can't find them in the written language. That is the reason why theories of change are based on written sources, because they show the words that have finally settled both in the spoken and written language.
11- Any description of a language involves norms? Think of the descriptions of your own language. Why is this so? For example: He ate the pie already is considered to be non-standard in which variety of English and perfectly acceptable in which other?
This sentence is non-standard in British English but it is acceptable in American English.
In Angentinian Spanish 'vos' (=you) is a standard word, but it isn't in the Spanish from Spain, where we say 'tu'.
12- What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammars?
Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers.
Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used.
Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules, but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the 'correct' or 'incorrect' use of language.
13- Weinreich, Labov and Herzog's (1968) empirical foundations of language change:
Constraints: what changes are possible and what are not
Embedding: how change spreads from a central point through a speech community
Evaluation: social responses to language change (prestige overt and covert attitudes to language, linguistic stereotyping and notions on correctness).
Transition: 'the intervening stages which can be observed, or which must be posited, between any two forms of a language defined for a language community at different times' Weinreich, Labov and Herzog 1968: 101)
Actuation: Why particular changes take place at a particular time.
What do you think the 'prestige motivation for change' and the 'solidarity constraint' mean? How are they opposed?
Prestige motivation for change occurs when less prestigious varieties imitate some traits of the more prestigious varieties
Solidarity constraint: when the speaker makes his accent stronger when out of his speech community.
