Some characteristics of a specific language:

description of wines

Mª Teresa Galarza Ballester

Introduction

The present paper constitutes a description of the language of oenology, attempting to point out how the language is organised.

Wine writers have described wines as if they were dealing with people, fruits or vegetables, in any situational context, representing the persuasive characteristics of the language in every text. In the wineries' home pages the language is even more persuasive, it is advertising, selling a product. Therefore there are changes in the language according to the context, and the language must be studied in the specific context.

When dealing with meaning and context the concepts of register and genre should be clarified.

Pike (1967:599) states that a 'possible equivalent for register is the universe of discourse' (quoted Beaugrande, 1993:7), he points out the link between meaning and context, being in his definition context equivalent to what he calls universe of discourse; since there are several universes of discourse various contexts must be found out.

In Firth's (1957:124) work, a 'possible equivalent of register might be the restricted language, which he defined as serving a circumscribed field of experience or action and having its own grammar and dictionary' (quoted Beaugrande, 1993:8).

The definition is in accordance with Pike's, both scholars point out the dependence of meaning on context and both agree on the existence of several contexts according to various specific languages, such as technology, sport, politics, mathematics ... and others Firth studied.

Ure (1969) also describes register as a 'variety according to use, in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at different times' ( quoted Leckie-Tarry, 1993:28)

Halliday (1978:32) divulged the term register and defined it as 'a configuration of semantic resources that the member of a culture typically associates with a situation type' (quoted Beaugrande, 1993:9) and postulated that 'language varies as its function varies: it differs in different situations' (quoted Bhatia, 1993:5); he states that language changes according to specific situations, he is thus in accordance with the previous definitions but Halliday, McIntosh and Strevens also establish that the notion of register is determined by the categories / contextual dimensions of field, tenor and mode.

Definitely, register can be defined as a variety of language according to use.

However the concept of register seemed insufficient for genre theorists. Genres have been basically defined as 'the socially ratified text-types in a community' (Leckie-Tarry, 1993:30), since genre theorists perceived register as an incomplete concept to explain the relationship between text and context. Genre theorists have studied language emphasizing on social processes and functional aspects of texts, to represent culturally recognized customs and events.

While the concept of register points out the relationship between text and context, genres are use to 'embrace each of the linguistically realized activity types which comprise so much of our culture' (Leckie-Tarry, 1993:35)

However, Halliday and others thought the distinction unnecessary since the concept of register specified the relationship between text and context at all levels, according to them.

This conflict in terminology has been solved by Martin (1988:17), he accepts Halliday's concept of register but he also distinguishes register from genre, 'placing register as a semiotic system intervening between genre above and language below, where language is treated as the phonology of register and register as the phonology of genre' (quoted Leckie-Tarry, 1993:37). For him, situation contexts are fundamental to study registers and socio-cultural contexts are fundamental to study genres, therefore the varieties of field, tenor and mode are not only set for different texts but for different socio-cultural contexts.

Swales (1981, 1985 & 1990) defines genre as:

a recognizable comminicative event characterized by a set of comminicative purposes identified and mutually understood by the members of the professional or academic community in which it regularly occurs. Most often it is highly structured and conventionalized with constraints on allowable contributions in terms of their intent, positioning, form and functional value. These constraints, however, are often exploited by the expert members of the discourse community to achieve private intentions within the framework of socially recognized purposes. (quoted Bhatia, 1993:13)

According to this definition, genres are mainly characterised by communicative purposes which give them an internal structure. Differences in communicative purposes imply a different genre to be distinguished or perhaps a refined sub-genre.

As genres originate as a consequence of communicative purposes they are shaped and structured by the members of a specific community, who also must conform to the standard characteristics of the genre and must be familiar with the conventions of the genre to achieve the intended purposes as well.

In the following paper I analyse texts describing wines, to answer the questions, are these descriptions a genre in itself?, are they a sub-genre?, are the characteristics of it thoroughly shaped? I would better consider it a sub-genre, since these texts are found in a very specific context, the context of wineries home pages, and therefore the purposes differ from other articles describing wines found in other contexts.

The essay considers that these texts are highly context-dependent, as it is firstly pointed out in the sections studying the situational context and the contextual analysis. These sections analyse the participants and their relationships in their immediate context, it also attempts to define the cultural situation and it describes the medium of communication.

A corpus of fifteen samples has been chosen. The selection has not been made at random, firstly a corpus of fifty texts has been compared and after taking into account such variables as country of origin, wealth of the companies, advances in technology, quality of the products etc, the corpus has been reduced to fifteen texts.

In the linguistic analysis ten texts have been studied, in the analysis of text-pattering six texts have been studied since all of them shared a similar pattern, and a general text pattering has been obtained. In the lexical analysis, fifteen texts have been considered.

Definitely, the following analysis provides a deep description of the data to clarify whether it matches the genre or deviates from it.

Situational Context

Contextual information has been established in terms of field, tenor and mode. The field is the subject matter, activity or topic, the mode is the channel for communication and the tenor is the role relationship between interactants.

This paper analyses the “description of wines” on the internet as a genre.

The above parametres are identified as:

1. Field: persuasive and convincing discourse.

2. Mode: internet.

3. Tenor: home pages of wineries and readers interested in wines.

Description of wines on the internet is a digital genre existing in other media which takes the advantages available on the internet. This media is used to create a positive image of the company and to advertise their products.

Wines are not only described from an objective viewpoint as in a specialized magazine of oenology but are persuasively exposed to establish contact with the reader, since they are shown from the wineries home pages.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the elements that are characteristic of the pages that describe wines. These elements can be analysed in terms of purpose, functionality, content and form.

The genre aims at:

1. giving information about the wines and the company.

2. creating a positive image of the company.

3. establishing contact with the customer.

4. offering and selling their products

5. describing wines.

The texts are not only plain descriptions of specific wines but texts that fulfill other functions such as advertising and selling. Thus, the description of wines in this situational context emerges as a multi-purpose genre.

Contextual Analysis

a. Writer of the text and audience.

The articles appear in the wineries' home pages and the main objective is to give information about their wines. However, wine writers attempt to accomplish other functions.

Regarding to the wineries' products, the articles:

1. contribute to the knowledge and interest in their wines

2. promote their products of quality.

3. recommend widely available wines.

Regarding to other products, wine writers:

1. comment adversely on other 'faulty' products.

2. attempt to establish good relations with other wineries.

Regarding to the relationship with the customer, these articles:

1. often provide programmes of workshops, meetings or tastings.

2. attempt to sell their products.

There is a wide audience which can be classified in three groups according to their interests,

1. other wineries:

   1.1. wineries interested in the management of other companies.

   1.2. wineries interested in establishing contact with other companies.

2. readers:

   1.1. readers interested in all types of wines.

   1.2. readers interested in the products of a specific winery.

3. Buyers.

b. Historical and sociocultural context of the community in which the discourse takes place.

Due to the rapid development of the internet in the 1990s , companies have realized this is a great media to advertise themselves sneaking in everybody's home; and wineries have not been an exception.

The development of internet in this decade coincides with the evolution of new techniques in the field of computers, these two factors have contributed to the generalised use of computers and the internet at home.

In North America,

• wineries have been the pioneers in the use of the internet

• home pages are directed toward a broad audience, belonging to middle-upper classes with a high standard of general education

In Western Europe,

• the use of internet is presently growing and companies are increasing the use of this media

• the audience is not as wide as in the USA, and home pages are directed to a middle or upper class reader.

In Eastern Europe, Asia and South Africa,

• there are few wineries using the net, these few companies are usually linked to Eurpean and American companies to sell their products

• home pages are directed to a broad audience all over the world.

In many countries drinking wine is associated with special occasions, thus wineries' home pages attempt to popularize wines as an everyday beverage. Therefore, web pages are found in the most technologically advanced countries directed to a broad audience all over the world.

100. Extra-textual reality.

Wineries home pages are mainly attempting to encourage consumers to increase their knowledge and their consumption of wine.

The internet is providing consumers easier access to products from around the world, and wineries are exploiting this method of marketing.

Moreover, wineries are seeking to exploit wine tourism using the internet, they have created websites allowing potential customers to take virtual tours of their wineries, with the aim of encouraging customers to take a real tour in the company.

The purposes of these home pages have been pointed out in the previous sections, to sum up it can be said that these websites

• give information about their wines

• promote the company

• attempt to establish contact with the customer

• provide programmes of workshops and tastings

• comment on other products

• attempt to establish contact with other companies

As a whole the use of the internet is a powerful tool to popularize companies all over the world, it allows costumers to get information on products available in any country, it allows the direct purchase from producers by consumers, it contributes to our general knowledge of the field, and mainly it benefits commerce.

Linguistic Analysis

1. Analysis of lexico-grammatical features

A. Tense

Past tenses and perfect aspects do not appear in the texts as frequently as the present tense.

The past tense is sometimes used to report on the production of the wine:

(5) this intense, port-like Zinfandel was picked at 32.12 bricks of sugar on Oct. 27^th of 2000.

The perfect aspect is sometimes used to point out an achievement of the product:

(1) this fine small producer has certainly hit the mark.

The present tense is an important element in the description of the wine:

(1)deep vibrant color and bright cherry/plum fruit distinguish this lucious and seductive Barbera.

(1) Black Opal Chardonnay displays lovely 'peaches and cream' aromas

(2) The Black Opal Chardonnay is a soft, wonderfully flavoured Chardonnay.

(4) The Viognier is a unique and exceptional white grape.

(4) This is a rich, balanced wine.

(6) This is a rich, concentrated oaky wine.

(7) Smoky vanilla aromas follow through on a medium-bodied palate

(8) A rich entry leads to a lengthy finish

(10) Fragrant, spiced aromas follow through on a nutty, silky smooth, lighter-styled palate

B. Adverbials

Adverbials are present in the texts to accomplish different functions.

1. Place adverbials give information about relevant places:

   (4) Our Viognier is made from grapes grown exclusively for Eagle Castle Winery here in Paso Robles.

   (4) Exceptional white grape originally from the northern Rhone Valley in France.

2. Adverbs appear together with adjectives to emphasize the meaning of an utterance:

   (2) wonderfully flavoured Chardonnay

   (7) ...mouthfeel that finish smoothly with lingering oaky flavours

   (8) nicely integrated oak

   (9) massively concentrated and mouthfilling

and usually to specify the meaning of an adjective:

6. moderately full bodied palate

8. lengthy finish

8. quite impressive

(10) silky smooth

100. Pronouns.

Personal pronouns are not found in these texts.

Possessive pronouns are sometimes used to reinforce the link between the product and the company:

(4) Our Viognier is made from grapes grown exclusively for Eagle Castle

(4) Our Viognier has a bouquet of fresh apricots.

Pronoun 'it'

The pronoun 'it' hardly appears in the texts, it is sometimes used instead of the name of the product to avoid repetition:

(6) It needs suitable food

Demonstrative pronouns

The demonstrative pronoun 'this' appears with descriptions praising the quality of the wine:

(1) this lucious and seductive Barbera

(4) this is a rich, balanced wine

(6) this is a rich, concentrated oaky wine

(10) this has the impression of being aged to mellowness

The demonstrative 'this' is often found repeatedly in the beginning of sentences for stylistic reasons:

(5) This harvest is no exceotion. This intense, port-like Zinfandel ... This delightful dessert wine

Ther are not indefinite pronouns and the pro-verb 'do' does not appear in these texts.

500. Questions

Direct 'Wh' questions are not found in these texts.

E. Nominal forms

Nominalizations are used to define deeply an important characteristic of the wine, as in:

(5) an alluring smoky sweetness

(1) with snappy acidity to counterbalance their rich foods

(7) lingering oaky flavours

(8) very good concentration

(10) aged to mellowness

(10) lingering praline finish

or to emphasize an specific process in the making of the wi ne:

2. undergoing malolactic fermentation with three months maturation in French oak

Nominal forms most widely used are plain nouns such as:

color, fruit, aromas, oak, wine, grape, barrels,cedar, fruit or harvest

which are present nearly in every text.

Proper nouns are also present to point out the places where the wines are made and to popularize the wineries.

Names of wineries:

Eagle Castle Winery, Barbera d'Alba, Piemondo

Names of places:

Paso Robles (California), Casorzo, Castelnuovo Don Bosco, Penedés, Oporto

F. Passives

Agentless passives are used to describe the wines or to describe an aspect related to the production of the wine.

4. Our Viognier is made from grapes grown exclusively for Eagle Castle Winery

5. Paso Robles is noted for its fine Zinfandels.

'by'passives are not present and the active voice is usually preferred to the purposes of the texts.

G. Subordination features

Subordination features barely appear in the texts. It is avoided the use of subordinate clauses to achieve directness in the description of the wines.

Subordination only appears in a few long sentences that add extra-information to the main description:

2. The Black Opal Chardonnay is a soft, wonderfully flavoured Chardonnay that highlights the importance of aok maturation.

7. a rounded mouthfeel that finish smoothly...

(8) a lengthy finish that has very good concentration

'that' verb or adjective complements are the subordinate clauses easier to find.

'Wh'subordinate clauses do not appear and Infinitives can appear to complement an information as in

1. The Piamontese like their Barberas young, with snappy acidity to counterbalance their rich foods

participial clauses as subordinators hardly appear

(6) stern finish showing mineraly tannis.

Causative, concessive and conditional subordinators are not present in these texts.

Generally, there are not subordinate clauses as the purpose of these texts is to give a straightforward report and the information is clearly highlighted in main sentences.

H. Prepositional phrases and adjectives

Prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases are used in these texts to accomplish several functions,

1. As adverbials of place: 'in Paso Robles', 'the northern Rhone Valley in France'

2. To link information at the same level:

(4) bouquet of fresh apricots with a hint of cherry

(2) aromas derived from 30% of the wine undergoing malolactic fermentation with three months maturation in French oak barrels resulting in balanced fruit.

(7) finish smoothly with lingering oaky flavours

(10) lighter-styled palate with a lingering praline finish

Adjectives

Adjectives are broadly used, there are even texts where more adjectives than nouns can be found. Most of them are attributive adjectives that praise some qualities of the wines described:

(1) deep vibrant color

bright 'cherry/plum'fruit

lucious and seductive Barbera

snappy acidity

fine small producer

(2) famous and beautiful gemstone

rich long flavors

clean refreshing finish

(4) unique and exceptional white grape

fresh apricots

rich balanced wine

flowery and toasty finish

(5) delightful dessert wine

alluring smoking sweetness

(6) fleshy red fruits

oaky wine

(7) bright yellow-gold hue

(8) brilliant golden-yellow hue

tart acidity

(10) copper-red-tawny hue

1. Lexical specificity

Regarding to word position, adjectives appear before the noun, the noun is followed by the verb and the verb is followed by another noun phrase with attributive adjectives,

(6) oaky wine made in a modern style

(1) deep vibrant color and bright cherry/plum distinguish this lucious and seductive Barbera

(7) smoky vanilla aromas follow through on a medium-bodied palate

(8) a rich entry leads to a lengthy finish

(10) fragrant, spiced aromas follow through on a nutty, silky smooth, lighter-styled palate

This is the most widely used structure, there are always at least two adjectives to qualify the noun.

These descriptions have a high density of adjectives which appear repeatedly in every text:

unique, exceptional, rich, balanced, flowery, toasty, intense, lovely, delightful, fruity, oaky, bright, fine, famous, soft, brilliant.

Nouns are also repeated in the texts

grapes, apricots, cherry, apple, wine, alcohol, oak, harvest, dessert, spice, vanilla, fruit, producer, aromas, flavors

These nouns and adjectives constitute lexical fields of words used in the descriptions of wines.

J. Lexical classes

Conjuncts, hedges and amplifiers are not used in these texts.

A Downtoner appear in a text: (6) moderately full-bodied palate.

Emphatics are sometimes used:

(1) this fine small producer has certainly hit the mark.

(2) wonderfully flavored Chardonnay

(4) exclusively for Eagle Castle Winery.

A discourse particle has been found:

(4) this Viognier stands well as a dinner or special occasion wine.

K. Modals

Modals are hardly used to avoid subjectivity. The necessity modal 'should' has been found only in one text: (6) It needs suitable food and should benefit from a few extra years of age.

50. Specialized verb classes

Specialized verb clases such as public verbs, private verbs, and suasive verbs are not used.

1000. Reduced forms and dispreferred structures

Contractions.

It is avoided the use of contractions as the texts are directed at possible customers and the use of colloquial forms is rejected.

Complementizer 'that' deletion.

Subordinate clauses are hardly used and 'that'complements are not deleted

2. Chardonnay that highlights the importance of oak maturation

Split infinitives have not been found and split auxiliaries are used to give an emphatic meaning to the verb phrase.

1. this fine small producer has certainly hit the mark.

2. The Black Opal Chardonnay is a soft wonderfully flavored Chardonnay.

O. Negation.

Negation is hardly used as the texts attempt to give a positive image of the wines.

In (5) Paso Robles is noted for its Zinfandels, and this harvest is no exception, the negation is used to emphasize the meaning of the previous sentence.

2. Analysis of text-pattering or textualization.

The description of the following texts concentrates on the linguistic aspect of text construction in order to study language beyond sentence boundaries.

1. Barbera d'Alba

First move: introducing the wine.

step 1: gives a few positive characteristics of the wine

deep vibrant color and bright cherry/plum fruit

step 2: subjective description to advertise the product

this lucious and seductive

step 3: name of the wine

Barbera

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: gives information about the firm

the Piemontese like their Barberas young

step 2: gives more positives characteristics of the wine

with snappy acidity to counterbalance their rich foods

Third move: conclusion

step 1: popularizing the company

this fine small producer

step 2: giving a successful account of the product

has certainly hit the mark

Fourth move: additional information

step 1: in this case dealing with food matches

2. Black Opal Chardonnay

First move: introducing the wine

step 1: subjective description to advertise the product

named after Australia's most famous and beautiful gemstone

step 2: name of the wine

Black Opal Chardonnay

step 3: gives a few positive characteristics of the wine

displays lovely 'peaches and cream' aromas

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: gives more positive characteristics of the wine

with three months maturation in French Oak Barrels resulting in balanced fruit and oak characters...

Third move: conclusion

step 1: advertising the product

The Black Opal Chardonnay

step 2: giving a successful account of the product

is a soft, wonderfully flavored Chardonnay

Fourth move: additional information

step 1: price of the wine

3. Malvasia

First move: introducing the wine

step 1: description: red wine

step 2: names of the wines: Malvasia di Casorzo and Malvasia di Castelnuovo Don Bosco

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: characteristics of the wine: grapes...colour...alcoholic strenght

Third move: 0

Fourth move: additional information

step 1: place of production: Hills near Casorzo and Castelnuovo Don Bosco

4. Viognier

First move: introducing the wine

step 1: name of the wine: Our Viognier

step 2: gives a few positive characteristics of the wine is made from grapes grown exclusively..

step 3: advertise the company: Eagle Castle winery here in Paso Robles, California

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: gives more positive characteristics of the wine

the Viognier is a unique and exceptional white grape ...

Third move: conclusion

step 1: gives a successful account of the product

with a flowery and toasty finish due to aging in French oak barrels

step 2: advertising the product

this Viognier stands well as a dinner or special occasion wine

Fourth move: additional information

step 1: price

5. Zinfandel

First move: introducing the wine

step 1: gives a few positive characteristics of the wine: its fine Zinfandels

step 2: name of the wine: Zinfandel

step 3: advertises the product: this harvest is no exception

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: gives more positive characteristics of the wine: this intense, port-like Zinfandel....

Third move: conclusion

step 1: successful account of the product advertising it

this delightful dessert wine has lovely layers of berries and spices and an alluring smoky sweetness.

Fourth move: additional information.

step 1: price

6. Estancia Piedra Roble

First move: introducing the wine

step 1: description of the wine

saturated dark-red hue

Second move: describing the wine

step 1: gives more positive characteristics of the wine

rich aromas of brown spice, vanilla, and fleshy red fruits follow through on a moderately full-bodied palate with a rich...

step 2: gives information about the firm

traditional Spanish grape, Toro

Third move: conclusion

step 1: successful account of the product

should benefit from a few extra years of age

Fourth move: additional information

step 1: rate

rated: 90 points (exceptional)

step 2: category

category: other Spanish red

step 3: alcohol content

alcohol by volume: 13.5 %

step 4: tasting location

tasting location: our Chicago tasting room

step 5: tasting date

tasting date: 07/01/2001

step 6: wine ID

wine ID: 113488

General text-pattering

First move: introducing the wine

This move appears in almost all descriptions although it is not found in short texts.

The order of steps is not fixed.

Step. Gives a few positive characteristics of the wine

Step. (Subjective) description to advertise the product or company.

Step. Name of the wine.

Second move: describing the wine

The order of steps is not fixed.

Step. Gives information about the firm. This step does not appear in all descriptions.

Step. Gives more positive characteristics of the wine.

Third move: conclusion

This move appears in almost all descriptions, however it is not found in a few straightforward descriptions.

The order of steps is not fixed.

Step. Popularizing / advertising the company or product

Step. Giving a successful account of the product

Fourth move: additional information

The order of steps is not fixed, and the content of each step and amount of steps varies according to the winery.

Step. Food matches

Step. Price

Step. Place of production

Step. Rate

Step. Category

Step. Alcohol content

Step. Tasting location

Step. Tasting date

Step. Wine ID.

Lexical Analysis

The aim of the following analysis is to deepen into the study of the present specific language from the viewpoint of register analysis understood as the realization of genre.

Register analysis is based upon the three aspects that any text entails, described by Halliday (1978) as field, tenor and mode.

Field makes reference to the type of activity or province of knowledge dealt with in the text. Thus, the field prescribes what type of technical vocabulary must be expected in accordance with the discipline.

In this case, oenology is the field to be analysed and words describing characteristics of wines are expected.

Tenor sets the relationship existing between author and reader/listener and then, establishes what register (formal or informal) must be expected in terms of vocabulary and grammar.

In this case the authors are wine writers in wineries home pages addressing their descriptions of wines to readers interested in their products, not necessarily oenologists, so the register expected is more informal than formal.

Mode is the wider aspect of register analysis: it is where vocabulary and grammar are analysed in depth. In this case vocabulary will be analysed following these criteria:

Lexical levels:

Technical: defined by the discipline.

Sub-technical: from standard level but redefined by the discipline.

General Scientific or Academic: common to all disciplines.

Colloquial: standard and informal items.

Lexical items:

Collocations

Cognates

Nominal compounds

Idioms

Lexical levels

1. TECHNICAL

( 2 ) malolactic fermentation

( 8 ) fruit wine

14. viticulture, cool fermentation

2. SUB-TECHNICAL

3. GENERAL SCIENTIFIC OR ACADEMIC

4. COLLOQUIAL

Lexical items

COLLOCATIONS COGNATES NOMINAL COMPOUNDS

Lexical levels

Lexical items

Conclusions

The texts are found in wineries' home pages advertising their products to any sort of customer; due to the context I did not expect many technical words but only three have appeared, less than expected.

There is a 18.48% of colloquial words. In specialized texts less colloquial words usually appear, however these texts are not specialized, they are written to be understood and colloquial words appear as in an advertisement.

There is a 44.57% of sub-technical words and 33.69% of general scientific. These texts deacribing wines are therefore a sub-genre, since its communicative purposes differ from other texts of the field found in other contexts, and that is why there are a few technical words but a wide range of sub-technical and general scientific.

Regarding to lexical items there is a 22.67% of collocations defined by the register and identified by frequency, they often appear only in these texts.

There is a high percentage of cognates (60%), that gives the texts a formal appearance and a 17.33% of nominal compounds giving the texts a high meaning density.

References

Beaugrande, R. 1993. 'Register in discourse studies: a concept in search of a theory' in Ghadesy, M. (ed) Register Analysis: Theory and Practice. London: Pinter Publishers.

Bhatia, V.K. 1993. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London: Longman.

Leckie-Tarry, H.1993. 'The specification of a text: register, genre and language teaching', in Ghadesy, M. (ed.) Register Analysis: Theory and Practice. London: Pinter Publishers.