CROWLEY QUESTIONS

1.      1.   What does elocution mean? What are elocution lessons? Do they exist in Spanish?

Elocution is the art of public speaking, especially of voice production, delivery, and gesture. Collins Concise English Dictionary, Seventh Edition.

So, following this definition we can extract that elocution lessons have the aim that people can speak English properly. Other elements as gestures or strength in the tone of voice will be taken into account too.

I think they don’t exist in Spanish. I know that there are organisms by which you can learn that language, but not one where you can center specifically yourself on this point.

2.      2.   What do “polyglossia” and “monoglossia” mean?

Polyglossia is defined as the coexistence of multiple languages in the same area (http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polyglossia) while monoglossia is defined as the absolute dominance of one language.

We would like to emphasize the next quotation:

Monoglossia (absolute dominance of one language) typical of such an ancient city as Athens is opposed to polyglossia (coexistence of two languages, for instance of English and French in medieval England ). A spoken language in a modern society may seem to be more or less unified, but there are not only different social dialects (such as layers of New York English studied in the modern sociolinguistics), but also individual differences between speakers. A monological attitude is connected to monoglossia while a true dialogue is made possible through polyglossia. “Language is transformed from an absolute dogma it had been within the narrow framework of a sealed-off and impermeable monoglossia into a working hypothesis for comprehending and expressing reality. But such a full and complete transformation can occur only under certain conditions, namely, under the condition of thoroughgoing polyglossia. Only polyglossia fully frees consciousness from the tyranny of its own language and its own myth of language”.

(http://kogni.narod.ru/bakhtin.htm)

3.      3.   What kind of English does Puttenham recommend?

He defends the speech of the court as the natural, pure, and most usual of all his country.

4.      4.   What does “copious” mean? Look up pronunciation.

Abundant, excessive in quantity. Collins Concise English Dictionary, Seventh Edition.

Its pronunciation form is ʻkəʊpɪəs

5.      5.   What does “trope” mean?

The use of a word or expression in a different sense from that which properly belongs to it; the use of a word or expression as changed from the original signification to another, for the sake of giving life or emphasis to an idea; a figure of speech.

(http://www.dictionary.net/trope)

6.      6.   Why does Crowley call the standardization process a war?

Because it is similar in some senses to a war. In words of the text The linkage of language and war was a very common trope in the eighteenth century. Historically standardization was a process with a lot of problems that continued in the XIX with the spelling reform because for the majority of laypersons it supposed to learn the new form of words (as we have seen in the unit 3).

7.      7.   What does “encomium” mean?

Tribute or eulogy in prose or verse glorifying people, objects, ideas, or events. The opposite of invective and one of the progymnasmata. Plural, encomia.

(http://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/encomiumterm.htm)

A formal expression of praise; eulogy; panegyric. Collins Concise English Dictionary, Seventh Edition.

8.      8.   Who wrote the “Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue”?

Jonathan Swift.

9.     9.    Do Johnson and Swift agree that the English language has degenerated?

Yes, they do. They were two of the most important men that support this idea. Quoting from Johnson tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration; we have long preserved our constitution, let us make some struggles for our language (Johnson 1806: II, 64).

In addition, Swift agreed with this tendency. In words of the text: He dismisses those who would postpone any reform of the language.

10  10.   Swift proposed an academy. Who else?

Daniel Defoe.

11  11.   Why were the Whigs (See Whigs and Tories in Wikipedia) against an academy?

Because they identify the creation of an academy as a common point with France and with the Stuart claimants to the monarchy.

11  12.   What does Sheridan mean by “the genius of our people”?

He said this when he was making a comparison between France and Britain societies. He concluded that an academy would not work in Britain for “the genius of our people” referring clearly to the metaphysical and attitude of English people.

11   13.   What reason does Swift give for the “decay of Latin”

Swift supported the idea that the history of languages is intimately related with politics. For example, he specified that Latin decayed losing its prestige due to the fact that there was a change to totalitarianism in the structure of the government. (Swift 1957: 8).

11   14.   What does “suffer” in line 2 of page 66 mean?

It refers to the feeling that some authors share because of the constant change that the language suffered then. There wasn’t an easy solution and the possibility that some plays weren’t understood by the future public worried a lot writers. Quoting from the text it was a problem which beset all writing and therefore, importantly, called into question the very writing of history itself.

11   15.   Who was the first person, involved in German cultural nationalism, to make the link between language and nation?

He was herder.

11   16.   What was Sheridan’s solution to the problem of divergence in pronunciation?

He proposed that the clergy should act as a medium and propagate a determinate type of pronunciation through the population (standard English). However, first of all they need a teaching increase in this particular variety.

11   17.   How did several authors describe other European languages? Do you agree with this kind of classification?

This tendency of comparing vernacular languages between them and with English was very popular at the end of the XVIII century. But as the text says: There was of course no real comparison; English simply made good deficiencies which other languages were unfortunate to have.

Some authors as Lemon argued that French was “flimsy”, Italian “neat”, Spanish “grave”…

I disagree with this classification considering it superficial, artificial and without any linguistic value being based only in arbitrary opinions.

11   18.   In which novel Daniel Defoe capture the “colonial fantasy”?

In Robinson Crusoe.

11   19.   Locke thought that learning Latin was not necessary for which group of people?

He thought it was not necessary for tradesmen as carpenters.

22   20.   How did learning to speak English using standard English empower people?

It was a necessity. Merchants need to know this variety to do their business, in the school there was a progressive incorporation of masters to teach it or in politics the Senate required an “elegant” and “pure” form.

22   21.   What kind of English is deemed to be “proper” English?

The language properly so called is found in the upper and middle ranks, over the whole British Empire (Campbell 1776: I, 353-4).

It is no longer the language of the court, the universities or anywhere so unspecific as “London”.

22   22.   How was the inculcation of linguistic patterns carried out with middle-class children?

It was inculcated in an education system based on rewards and punishments. Students were divided according to their spelling abilities so that conditions weren’t the same for everybody.

Quoting the text schoolchildren inculcation of the habitus was conducted by a process which we might call that of discipline, punishment, and education.

22   23.   What was the purpose of training women linguistically in the 18^th century according to Crowley?

Women were to be linguistically educated for two purposes: to fulfil the role of the mother, passing on pure language to the child (a constant source of anxiety in the century), and to act as companion to the male in the public sphere.

22   24.   Why did Locke warn against children talking to servants?

He disagreed with the fact that children talked to servants because they could pick up linguistic bad habits like tricks and vices.

22   25.   What was the difference between the mistakes made by the working classes and those made by the gentry according to Sheridan?

He said that working classes mistakes are more serious because they are related with the structure of the language. Gentry’s mistakes are not general and affect only certain type of words.

Saturnino Figueroa