Suppose a society called everyhing slightly red "red" and grouped purple along along with red in the process. And
     compare this to a society that called everything slightly orange "orange," included red (but not purple) under the category,
     but also yellow. How would these two societies be able to talk about the color of things? They would be using different
     language maps to organize colors and a simple translation from one to the other appears simply impossible.

     The problem is that within our own language community we fail to notice the way in which we are constituting what we
     talk about by such arbitrary language practices that have become second nature to us. Studying these discourse
     formations (or discursive formations) is "archeology." We will try to grasp the implicit rules we use that work together to
     form this map of the world around us.

     Without knowing it, we group distinguishable objects into unities and thus constitute our objects. An object is constituted
     like this by a "unity of discourse". In Wittgensteinian terms, this might mean by a language game.) The unity of discourse
     on a particular topic (or object) "would be the interplay of rules that define the transformation of these objects, their
     non-identity through time, the break produced in them, the internal discontinuity that suspends their permanence."
     (archeology of Knowledge, p.33)  For example, we constitute the object of "marriage" by a set of rules that allows us to
     say that we are "married" together with the interplay of rules that defines the marriage as dissolved (annulled, divorced,
     non-valid). Foucault suggests that an archeology should examine the way this works, how we control our mental
     taxonomy through language practices.
diseases of power
     Foucault names two "diseases of power" fascism and Stalinism (Foucault Afterword, in Dreyfus and Rabinow, p.209)
     These are "excesses" of power.
dispositif
     The concept of an episteme is insuficient and dispositif fills in the gap.  An episteme is researched through the analysis of
     discourse (text), but there are practices (institutions, architectural arrangments, regulations, laws, administrative
     measures, scientific statements, philosphic propositions, morality, philanthropy) in addition to discourse which we may
     use to do a genealogical analysis of some particular situation. (Dreyfus and Rabinow, p.121) These practices form an
     intensified surveillance and control mechanism (Darier, 589), creating policy which polices and disciplines and which
     leads to resistance among certain groups.
determinism
     a condition in which all forms of liberty are gradually suppressed; madness shows us nothing more than the natural
     constants of a detemrinism, with the sequences of its causes, and the discursive movement of its forms; for madness
     threatens modern man only with that return to the bleak world of beasts and things, to their fettered freedom. (Madness
     and Civilization, p.83)
discourse
     Practices obeying certain rules: "Archaeology tries to define not the thoughts, representations, images, themes,
     preoccupations that are concealed or revealed in discourses; but those discourses themselves, those discourses as
     practices obeying certain rules." (Archaeology, 138)
domination
     domination is often indirect. People often feel they are fighting domination when they are yielding to it. Domination is not
     merely oppression that refuses to let the people have their pleasure. People who are resisting that kind of oppression are
     often unwittingly supporting their own domination. Power always requires resistance. (see Dreyfus and Rabinow, p.169)
Enkrateia
     "self-control", the power one must have over oneself to use aphrodisia rightly; connected to ascesis which is "training in
     self-denial"
episteme
     equivalent to a paradigm.
gaze
     penetrating and sage observation. In the Birth of the Clinic, Foucault speaks of the myth of the clinical gaze, that is, the
     myth that the physician can see into the heart of a problem in order to diagnose and treat it, and that this ability to know
     by gazing is a result of the vast array of obsevations that the clinician has made.
genealogy
     The genealogy of knowledge consists of two separate bodies of knowledge: First, the dissenting opinions and theories
     that did not become the established and widely recognized  and, second,  the local beliefs and understandings (think of
     what nurses know about medicine that does not achieve power and general recognition).  The genealogy is concerned
     with bringing these two knowledges, and their struggles to pass themselves on to others,  out into the light of the day.
 
      Genealogy does not claim to be more true than institutionalized knowledge, but merely to be the missing part of the
     puzzle.  It works by isolating the central components of some current day political mechanism (such as maintainng the
     power structure which diagnoses mental illness) and then traces it back to its historical roots (Dreyfus and Rabinow,
     p.119).  These historical roots are visible to us only through the two separate bodies of genealogical knowledge
     described above.

     Foucault says, "Let us give the term 'genealogy' to the union of erudite knowledge and local memories which allows us to
     establish a historical knowledge of struggles and to make use of this knowledge tactically today. (Genealogy and social
     Criticism, p.42)"

     The geneaalogical side of analysis tries to grasp the power of constituting a domain of objects. If a society were to
     institute the role of medicine man, for example, and give him special privileges, we would thereby "constitute the object
     of medicine man."  Until we established and institutionalized this practice, nothing could be called a "medicine man."  The
     genealogy explores what was not evident because of the institutionalization of knowledge by those in power.

     (see Discourse on Language which is the appendix in the Archeology of Knowledge.); Whereas archeologystudies the
     practices of language (in a strict sense), genealogy uncovers the creation of objects through institutional practices.
     (Dreyfus & Rabinow, p.104). Whereas the archeological historian claims to write from a neutral, disinterested
     perspective, the Nietzschean or Foucaultian genealogist admits the political and polemical interests motivating the writing
     of the history (Hoy, 1986, p.6-7)
general grammar
     "general grammar is the study of verbal order in relationship to the simultaneity that it is its task to represent. " (The
     Order of Things, p.83) "It appeared in the second half of the seventh century and faded away during the last years of the
     following century."(The Order of Things, p.91)
genesis
     genesis - the analysis of the constitution of orders on the basis of empirical series.(Order of things, p.78)
government
     [B]y government Foucault meant not so much the political or administrative structurs of the modern state as 'the way in
     which the conduct of individuals or of groups might be directed: the government of children, of souls, of communities, of
     families, of the sick.... To govern, in this sense, is to structure the possible field of action of others' (Burchell et al, 1991,
     cited by Smart, 1992). (Foucault's afterword in Dreyfus and Rabinow, p.221)
governmentality
     A centralization and increased government power. This power is not negative. In fact, it produces reality through "rituals
     of truth" and it creates a particular style of subjectivity with which one conforms to or resists. Because the individuals are
     taken into this subjectivity they become part of the normalizing force. Governmentality also includes a growing body of
     knowledge that presents itself as "scientific," and which contributes to the power of governmentality. This is a term
     introduced by Foucault in the resume (199) and illustrated in other articles (1979b) 1981, 1984a. (see Darier).  Also see
     Foucault's article on this topic.
 
     Governmentality is a novel kind of governing that emerged in Europe during the sixteenth century. It happened when
     feudalism was failing and when their was a loss of power in the absolute monarch.  Even though we do not have absolute
     power of the monarch now, we do have govenrment.  To a large extent this is internalized by people, but there is also
     survelliance and reinforcement for conforming to the rules.  This new kind of governmentality  was made possible by the
     creation of specific (expert or professional) "knowledges" as well as the construction of experts, institutions and
     disciplines (e.g., medicine, psychology, psychiatry) so that individuals who we think of as experts can claim the
     knowledge necessary to command the power of governmentality. .
heteroptia
     A space in which contradictory elements are juxtaposed.
historicity
     The historical bias of each author, each society, each academic discipline.  There is no narrative that describes history
     apart from the situatedness of the story-teller.  "Thus, behind the history of the positivities, there appears another, more
     radical history, that of man hmself - a history that now concerns man's very being since he now realizes that he not only
     'haas history' all around him, but is himself, in his own historicity, that by means of which a history of human life, a history
     of economics, and a history of languages are given their form." (The Order of Things, p.370)
historicism
     A means of working with the problem that all "history" is history from the perspective of the historian.  "Historicism is a
     means of validating for itself the perpetual critical relation at play between History and the human sciences." (OT, p.372)
     "All knowledge is rooted in a life, a society, and a language that have a history; and it is in that very history that
     knowledge finds the element enabling it to communicate with other forms of life."(OT, p.372/3)
mathesis
     the science of calculable order (Order of Things, p.73) a qualitative science of order (see 74-75 Order of Things)
negative power
     Negative power is "power that says no." (Power/Knowledge, p.139) It is the power that says that something cannot be
     done and that acts to enforce this law. Positive power inspires and solves certain problems, enables, serves use to
     someone.
measurement
     measurement enables us to to analyze like things according to the calculable form of identity and difference. (Order of
     Things, p.53)
normalisation
     the moulding of people into "normal" as opposed to "abnormal" forms., and the process by which a culture encourages
     its people to regulate and achieve his or her own conformity with the established rules. This is achieved through
     governmentality.
order
     Order can be established without reference to an exterior unit. (He seems to be thinking of "order" as a kind of sorting or
     establishing of priorities.)
panopticon
     The method of surveillance in the modern prison - this is the method that the modern state uses to execute and regulate
     its control of society. Unlike the monarchical state, which uses brute force to control its subjects, the 'democratic' state
     requires internalized and sophisticated coercion to perform this function.  The term "panopticon" was a name suggested
     by Jeremy Bentham (Betham, 1995).  In a prison built with modern archetecture that allows guards to see continuously
     inside each cell, the "panopticon" is the central observing tower even though the prisoners cannot see that they are being
     observed.  This constant gaze controls the prisoners affecting not only what they do but how they see themselves.  and
     replaced the use of a dungeon and dark cell to control the prisoner (1979a, 170).  This image serves as a metaphor for
     the power in of governmentality in the modern state.
pastoral power
     The kind of power that is exercised by the Church. It rests on the church's power to assure individual salvation in the
     next world. It is linked with the notion of individualism (as in individual salvation). In modern times, the salvation in the
     next life has been commuted to a salvation in this life (health, wellbeing, security, etc.) (1982, 213-215)
police
     The job of the police is the articulation and adminisration of techniques of bio-power so as to increase the state's control
     over its inhabitants.
positivity
     (The Order of Things, p.348)
pathologization
     There are two senses: First, the natural depletion of the organism producing tremors, pertrubations, etc., and second, the
     "discovery" that at the root of sexuality is a source of illness in the form of a hidden passivity. Sexuality is therefore not
     evil but the source of ills. (Foucault, Care of the Self, p.142)
power
     Power is exerted implicitly by the way in which our conversation (i.e., discourse) is formed, and it is often exerted by
     denying its own truth, or by myths that misrepresent the source of power by pointing to less powerful sources. For
     example, in the History of Sexuality, Foucault explains that we moderns tend to think of our sexuality as repressed by
     social forces that forbid us sexual release. The myth here is that we are sexually repressed but this popularity of this myth
     deeply shapes the nature of our sexuality by introducing the ritual of confession. We confess (in church, in
     psychoanalysis) the thoughts which nature tells us should be free (or we would be free of if we were not repressed) but
     which, due to the nature of our repression cause us to suffer in secret humilitation. But what is powerful today is less any
     mythical repression of our sexuality and more the myth of repression that leads us to have faith in the ritual of confession
     to free us of our psychic pain. This myth, and its corresponding ritual, implicitly design our sexual experience by telling us
     what our sexual experience should be, what we should look for, and by coloring that experience not only with shame and
     self-reproach but with the hidden excitement and fascination that makes our sexuality what it is.
 
     Power is also fueled by resistance. Without resistance, all power fades.

     The above is the major theme in "The History of Sexuality," however see especially pp 56-69. Here are a few
     representative quotations.

     "The important thing...is not that ...men shut their eyes or stopped their ears, or that they were mistaken [about sexual
     repression]; it is rather that they constructed around and appropos of sex an immense apparatus for producing truth,
     even if this truth was to be masked at the last moment." (56)

     "Historically, there have been two great procedures for producing the truth of sex.(57)" One is the technique of having
     erotic masters who "can transmit this art in an esoteric manner.(57)"  The second procedure is the "confession," and
     today, "western man has become a confessing animal.(59)"  "The obligation to confess is now relayed through so many
     different points, is so deeply ingrained in us, that we no longer perceive it as the effect of a power that constrains us; on
     the contrary, it seems to us that truth, lodged in our most secret nature, "demands" only to surface;..." (60)

     The two principal texts in which Foucualt evaluates and and substantiates his model of power relations are
     Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews & Other Writings 1972-1977 and The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1, An
     Introduction.
Power/knowledge
     Knowledge of how people's behavior can be affected. It is based on new techniques of social engineering, education,
     etc.
reflexive form of knowledge
     What we know about ourselves not by introspection but reflection. (The Order of Things, 363)
representation
     That which can be cast in a quantifiable and scientifically rigorous form.  "Usually, the attempt is made to define it
     [positivity] in in terms of mathematic: either by trying to bring it as near to mathematics as possible, by drawing up an
     inventory of everything in the sciences of man that is mathematicizable, and suppose that everything that is not susceptible
     of such a formalization has not yet attained to scientific. (Order of Things, p.363)
repressive hypothesis
     A term that Focault introduces in the History of Sexuality.  It is the view that truth is is repressed by a powerful force and
     that we can liberate ourselves by getting down to the truth.  Foucault opposes the "repressive hypothesis"
 
     to "bio-technico-power (or bio-power). (Dreyfus and Rabinow, p. 127).  The repressive hypothesis about sexuality is
     that western civilization has moved from a time of shameless sexuality to an era of repressed sexuality, restricted to the
     parents' bedroom. (Part 2 of the five part The History Sexuality is called The Repressive Hypothesis).  The repressive
     hypothesis holds that sex is repressed because it is incompatible with the work ethic in the rise of capitlism during the last
     two centuries.

     In the repressive view of power "[All power] can do is forbid, and all it can command is obedience. Power, ultimately, is
     repression; repression, ultimately, is the imposition of the law; the law, ultimately, demands submission." (Dreyfus &
     Rabinow, p. 130)
resistance
     "there are no relations of power without resistance" (1980, 142)
similitude
     Foucault teaches this concept by example from Bacon: The human Intellect, from its peculiar nature, easily supposes a
     greater order and equality in things than it actually finds; and, while there are many things in Nature unique, and quite
     irregular, still it feigns parallels, correspondnts, and relations that have no existence. Hence that fiction, 'that among the
     heavenly bodies all motion takes place by perfect circles.' from The Order of Things, p.52
Sophrosyne
     "discretion" or "wisdom", it also means "chastity"; the KNOWLEDGE, which can be of the ultimate meaning of the
     nature and purpose of love/sex, by which one can practice aphrodisia, chresis, and enkrateia successfully
self-fashioning
     care of the self-- This is analogous to self-government
subjugated knowledges
     a whole set of knowledges that have been disqualified as inadequate to their task or insufficiently elaborated: naive
     knowledges, located low down on the hierarchy, beneath the required level of
     cognition or scientificity (1980:82).
subjugated - being made subject to, being governed by institutionalized forces that control and
          and frame.(1982, 213)
subjectivity - subjugation.(subjection).
taxinomia
     When dealing with the ordering of complex natures (representations in general, as they are given in experience), one has
     to constitute a taxinomia, and to do that one has to establish a system of signs. These signs are to the order of composite
     natures what algebra is to the order of simple natures. But in so far as empirical representations must be analyzable into
     simple natures, it si clear that the taximonia relates wholly to the mathesis (Order of things, p.72)
technologies of self
     Technologies of the self are the specific practices by which subjects constitute themselves as subjects within and through
     systems of power, and which often seem to be either 'natural' or imposed from above.
 
truth
     "The important thing here...is that truth isn't outside power, or lacking in power: contrary to a myth whose history and
     functions would repay further study, truth isn't the reward of free spirits, the child of protracted solitude, nor the privilege
     of those who have succeeded in liberating themselves. Truth is a thing of this world: it is produced only by virtue of
     multiple forms of constraint." In other words, our institutions and schools of thought, our universities and charismatic
     leaders, our ministers our parents, our teachers, all of these collaborate to create a context in which something is
     established as "true." And think of truth as that which emerges only within certain sets of rules (much like Lyotard's
     notion of local definitions). For example, the rules of science say that we should define our concepts operationally, using
     specific measurement techniques. Studies of bone density, for example, must define it either as measurement of bone
     density of spine, the femur, the metacarpal or some other boney structure. But, since the density of these various bones is
     not highly correlated, different studies who use different bones will uncover "different truths." Truth emerges only within a
     structure of rules that control the language, the discourse."Truth presents itself as the product of discursive practices."
     (Pasquino)
unity of discourse
     "the unity of discourses on madness would not be based upon the existence of the object 'madness', or the constitution of
     a single horizon of objectivity; it would be the interplay of the rules that make possble the appearance of objects during a
     given period of time: objects are shaped by measures of discrimination and repression, objects that are differentiated in
     daily practice, in law, in religious casuitry, in medical diagnosis, objects that are manifested in pathological descriptions,
     objects that are circumscribed by medical codes, practices, treatment, and care.  Moreover, ...the unity of the discourse
     on madness would be the interplay of the rules that define the transformations of these different objects, their non-identity
     through time, the break produced in them, the intrnal discontinuity that suspends their permanence."
     (The archeology of Knowledge, p.32-33)

References

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Darier, Eric. (1996). Environmental Governmentality: The Case of Canada's Green Plan. Environmental Politics, 5(4),
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           Lois Shawver 'Dictionary for the Study of the Works of Michel Foucault'

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           The Encyclopaedia of the Philosophy of Education In English and Portuguese

           Enclopaedia of Marxism. Glossary of People. With the full text of The Archaeology of Knowledge and other texts.