==
THE HISTORICAL DRACULA: VLAD III TEPES, 1431-1476 ==
==
I. Historical Background ==
Most
of the members of this list are probably aware of the fact that when Bram
Stoker penned his immortal classic, _Dracula_, he based his vampire villain
on an actual historical figure. Stoker's model was Vlad III Dracula (call
Tepes, pronounced tse-pesh); a fifteenth century voivode or prince of Wallachia
of the princely House of Basarab. Wallachia is a province of Romania bordered
to the north by Transylvania and Moldavia, to the east by the Black Sea
and to the south by Bulgaria. Wallachia first emerged as a political entity
during the late thirteenth century from the weltering confusion left behind
in the Balkans as the East Roman Empire slowly crumbled. The first prince
of Wallachia was Basarab the Great (1310-1352), an ancestor of Dracula.
Despite the splintering of the family into two rival, clans some member
of the House of Basarab continued to govern Wallachia from that time until
well after the Ottomans reduced the principality to the status of a client
state. Dracula was the last prince of Wallachia to retain any real measure
of independence.
In
order to understand the life of Vlad Dracula it is first necessary to understand
something about the nature of Wallachian society and politics. The throne
of Wallachia was hereditary but not by the law of primogeniture; the boyars
or great nobles had the right to elect the voivode from among the various
eligible members of the royal family. As with most elective monarchies
during the Middle Ages the power of the central government tended to be
dissipated among the nobility as various members of the ruling family vied
for the throne. Wallachian politics also tended to be very bloody. Assassination
was a common means of eliminating rivals and many of the voivodes ended
their
lives violently and prematurely. By the late fifteenth century the House
of Basarab had split into two rival clans; the descendants of Prince Dan
and those of Prince Mircea the Old (Dracula's grandfather). These two branches
of the royal house were bitter rivals. Both Dracula and his father, Vlad
II Dracul, murdered rivals from the Danesti upon reaching the throne.
The
second ascendant fact of fifteenth century Wallachian political life was
the influence of powerful neighbors. In 1453 Constantinople and the last
vestiges of the Byzantine or East Roman Empire, which had blocked the Islam's
access to Europe for nearly one thousand years, succumbed to the armed
might of the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mohammed the Conqueror. Long before
the fall of the Imperial City the Ottomans had penetrated deep into the
Balkans. Dracula's grandfather, Mircea the Old, was forced to pay tribute
to the sultan early in the fifteenth century. The Hungarian Kingdom to
the north and west of Wallachia reached the zenith of its power during
the fifteenth century and assumed Constantinople's ancient mantle as defender
of Christendom. Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the princes
of Wallachia attempted to maintain a precarious independence by constantly
shifting allegiances between these powerful neighbors.
Dracula
ruled as Prince of Wallachia on three separate occasions. He first claimed
the throne with Turkish support in 1448. On this occasion he ruled for
only two months (November-October) before being driven out by a Danesti
claimant supported by Hungary. Dracula dwelt in exile for several years
before returning to Wallachia to kill the Danesti prince, Vladislav II,
and reclaim the Wallachian throne with Hungarian support. Dracula's second
regnal period stretched from 1456 to 1462. It was during this time that
Dracula carried out his most famous military exploits against the Turks
and also committed his most gruesome atrocities.
In
1462 Dracula fled to Transylvania to seek the aid of the King of Hungary
when a Turkish army overwhelmed Wallachia. Instead of receiving the assistance
he expected Dracula was imprisoned by the Hungarian king. He remained a
prisoner of Matthias Corvinus of Hungary for several years. For most of
the period of Dracula's incarceration his brother, Radu the Handsome, ruled
Wallachia as a puppet of the Ottoman sultan. When Radu died (ca. 1474-1475)
the sultan appointed Basarab the Old, a member of the Danesti clan, as
prince.
Eventually,
Dracula regained the favor and support of the Hungarian king. In 1476 he
once again invaded Wallachia. His small force consisted of a few loyal
Wallachians, a contingent of Moldavians sent by his cousin Prince Stephen
the Great of Moldavia, and a contingent of Transylvanians under their prince,
Stephen Bathory. The allies succeeded in driving Basarab out of the country
and placing Dracula on the throne (November 1476). However, after Dracula
was once again in control, Stephen Bathory returned to Transylvania taking
most of Dracula's army with him. The Turks soon counterattacked with overwhelming
force. Dracula was killed fighting the Turks near Bucharest in December
of 1476. His head was sent to Constantinople where the Sultan had it displayed
on a stake to prove that the terrible Impaler was really dead.
==
II. What's in a name? ==
There
has been considerable debate among scholars concerning the meaning of the
name 'Dracula'. The name is clearly related to Dracula's father's sobriquet
'Dracul'. Drac in Romanian means devil and 'ul' is the definitive article.
Therefore, 'Dracul' literally means 'the devil'. The '-ulea' ending in
Romanian indicates 'the son of'. Under this interpretation Dracula becomes
Vlad III, the son of the devil. The experts who support this interpretation
usually claim that Vlad II earned his devilish nickname by his clever and
wily political maneuvering.
The
second interpretation of the name is more widely accepted. In 1431 Vlad
II was invested with the Order of the Dragon by the Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund of Luxembourg. The Order of the Dragon was a knightly order dedicated
to fighting the Turk. Its emblem was a dragon, wings extended, hanging
on a cross. From 1431 onward Vlad II wore the emblem of the order. His
coinage bore the dragon symbol. The dragon was the symbol of the devil
and consequently and alternate meaning of 'drac' was dragon. Under this
interpretation Vlad II Dracul becomes Vlad II, the Dragon and his son,
Vlad III Dracula, becomes Vlad III, the Son of the Dragon.
There
is some confusion in the secondary sources concerning Dracula's exact title.
In most of the sources he is referred to as Vlad III. However, many sources
refer to him as Vlad IV or Vlad V. I am somewhat at a loss to explain this
confusion. The lists of Wallachian princes that I have seen would seem
to make the correct title Vlad III. The only conclusion I have been able
to reach is that there is some confusion in the sources between the various
Wallachian voivodes named Vlad and those named Vladislav. This argument
gains credence when one realizes that Dracula occasionally signed his name
as 'Vladislaus'. I would welcome an explanation from anyone capable of
resolving this problem.
==
III. The Life of Vlad III Dracula, called the Impaler (1431-1476 )==
Dracula
was born in 1431 in the Transylvanian city of Sighisoara. At that time
Dracula's father, Vlad II Dracul, was living in exile in Transylvania.
Vlad Dracul was in Transylvania attempting to gather support for his planned
effort to seize the Wallachian throne from the Danesti prince, Alexandru
I. The house where Dracula was born is still standing. In 1431 it was located
in a prosperous neighborhood surrounded by the homes of Saxon and Magyar
merchants and the townhouses of the nobility.
Little
is known about the early years of Dracula's life. It is known that he had
an elder brother, Mircea, and a younger brother named Radu. His early education
was left in the hands of his mother, a Transylvanian noblewoman, and her
family. His real education began in 1436 after his father succeeded in
claiming the Wallachian throne and killing his Danesti rival. His training
was typical of that common to the sons of the nobility throughout Europe.
His first tutor in his apprenticeship to knighthood was an elderly boyar
who had fought under the banner of Enguerrand de Courcy at the Battle of
Nicolopolis against the Turks. Dracula learned all the skills of war and
peace that were deemed necessary for a Christian knight.
The
political situation in Wallachia remained unstable after Vlad Dracul seized
the throne in 1436. The power of the Turks was growing rapidly as one by
one the small states of the Balkans surrendered to the Ottoman onslaught.
At the same time the power of Hungary was reaching its zenith and would
peak during the time of John Hunyadi, the White Knight of Hungary, and
his son King Matthias Corvinus. Any prince of Wallachia had to balance
his policies precariously between these two powerful neighbors. The prince
of Walla chia was officially a vassal of the King of Hungary. In addition,
Vlad Dracul was a member of the Order of the Dragon and sworn to fight
the infidel. At the same time the power of the Ottomans seemed unstoppable.
Even in the time of Vlad's father, Mircea the Old, Wallachia had been forced
to pay tribute to the Sultan. Vlad was forced to renew that tribute and
from 1436-1442 attempted to walk a middle course between his powerful neighbors.
In
1442 Vlad attempted to remain neutral when the Turks invaded Transylvania.
The Turks were defeated and the vengeful Hungarians under John Hunyadi
forced Dracul and his family to flee Wallachia. Hunyadi placed a Danesti
, Basarab II, on the Wallachian throne. In 1443 Vlad II regained the Wallachian
throne with Turkish support, on the condition that he sign an new treaty
with the sultan that included not only the customary annual tribute but
the promise to yearly send contingents of Wallachian boys to join the sultan's
Janissaries. In 1444, to further assure the sultan of his good faith, Vlad
sent his two younger sons to Adrianople as hostages. Dracula remained a
hostage in Adrianople until 1448.
In
1444 the King of Hungary, Ladislas Posthumous, broke the peace and launched
the Varna campaign under the command of John Hunyadi in an effort to drive
the Turks out of Europe. Hunyadi demanded that Vlad II fulfill his oath
as a member of the Order of the Dragon and a vassal of Hungary and join
the crusade against the Turk. The Pope absolved Dracul of his Turkish oath
but the wily politician still attempted to steer a middle course. Rather
than join the Christian forces himself he sent his oldest son, Mircea.
Perhaps he hoped the sultan would spare his younger sons if he himself
did not join the crusade.
The
results of the Varna Crusade are well known. The Christian army was utterly
destroyed in the Battle of Varna. John Hunyadi managed to escape the battle
under conditions that add little glory to the White Knight's reputation.
Many, apparently including Mircea and his father, blamed Hunyadi for the
debacle. From this moment forth John Hunyadi was bitterly hostile toward
Vlad Dracul and his eldest son. In 1447 Vlad Dracul was assassinated along
with his son Mircea. Mircea was apparently buried alive by the boyars and
merchants of Tirgoviste. Hunyadi placed his own candidate, a member of
the Danesti clan, on the throne of Wallachia.
On
receiving the news of Vlad Dracul's death the Turks released Dracula and
supported him as their own candidate for the Wallachian throne. In 1448
Dracula managed to briefly seize the Wallachian throne with Turkish support.
Within two months Hunyadi forced Dracula to surrender the throne and flee
to his cousin, the Prince of Moldavia, while Hunyadi once again placed
Vladislav II on the Wallachian throne.
Dracula
remained in exile in Moldavia for three years, until Prince Bogdan of Moldavia
was assassinated in 1451. The resulting turmoil in Moldavia forced Dracula
to flee to Transylvania and seek the protection of his family enemy, Hunyadi.
The timing was propitious; Hunaydi's puppet on the Wallachian throne, Vladislav
II, had instituted a pro-Turkish policy and Hunyadi needed a more reliable
man in Wallachia. Consequently, Hunyadi accepted the allegiance of his
old enemy's son and put him forward as the Hungarian candidate for the
throne of Wallachia. Dracula became Hunyadi's vassal and received his father's
old Transylvanian duchies of Faragas and Almas. Dracula remained in Transylvania,
under Hunyadi's protection, until 1456 waiting for an opportunity to retake
Wallachia from his rival.
In
1453 the Christian world was shocked by the final fall of Constantinople
to the Ottomans. The East Roman Empire which had existed since the time
of Constantine the Great and which for a thousand years had shielded the
rest of Christendom from Islam was no more. Hunyadi immediately began planning
another campaign against the Turks. In 1456 Hunyadi invaded Turkish Serbia
while Dracula simultaneously invaded Wallachia. In the Battle of Belgrade
Hunyadi was killed and his army defeated. Meanwhile, Dracula succeeded
in killing Vladislav II and taking the Wallachian throne but Hunaydi's
defeat made his long term tenure questionable. For a time at least, Dracula
was forced to attempt to placate the Turks while he solidified his own
position.
Dracula's
main reign stretched from 1456 to 1462. His capital was the city of Tirgoviste
while his castle was raised some distance away in the mountains near the
Arges River. Most of the atrocities associated with Dracula's name took
place in these years. It was also during this time that he launched his
own campaign against the Turks. This campaign was relatively successful
at first. His skill as a warrior and his well-known cruelty made him a
much feared enemy. However, he received little support from his titular
overlord, Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (the son of John Hunyadi)
and Wallachia's resources were too limited to achieve any lasting success
against the conqueror of Constantinople.
The
Turks finally succeeded in forcing Dracula to flee to Transylvania in 1462.
Reportedly, his first wife committed suicide by leaping from the towers
of Dracula's castle into the waters of the Arges River rather than surrender
to the Turks. Dracula escaped across the mountains into Transylvania and
appealed to Matthias Corvinus for aid. Instead the King had Dracula arrested
and imprisoned in a royal tower near Buda. Dracula remained a prisoner
for twelve years.
Apparently
his imprisonment was none too onerous. He was able to gradually win his
way back into the graces of Hungary's monarch; so much so that he was able
to meet and marry a member of the royal family (some of the sources claim
Dracula's second wife was actually the sister of Matthias Corvinus). The
openly pro-Turkish policy of Dracula's brother, Radu the Handsome, who
was prince of Wallachia during most of Dracula's captivity probably was
a factor in Dracula's rehabilitation. During his captivity Dracula also
renounced the Orthodox faith and adopted Catholicism. It is interesting
to note that the Russian narrative, normally very favorable to Dracula,
indicates that even in captivity he could not give up his favorite past-time;
he often captured birds and mice which he proceeded to torture and mutilate
-- some were beheaded or tarred-and-feathered and released, most were impaled
on tiny spears.
The
exact length of Dracula's period of captivity is open to some debate. The
Russian pamphlets indicate that he was a prisoner from 1462 until 1474.
However, during that period Dracula managed to marry a member of the Hungarian
royal family and have two sons who were about ten years old when he reconquered
Wallachia in 1476. McNally and Florescu place Dracula's actual period of
confinement at about four years from 1462 until 1466. It is unlikely that
a prisoner would be allowed to marry into the royal family. Diplomatic
correspondence from Buda during the period in question also seems to support
the claim that Dracula's actual period of confinement was relatively short.
Apparently
in years between his release and 1474 when he began preparations for the
reconquest of Wallachia Dracula resided with his new wife in a house in
the Hungarian capital. One anecdote from that period tells how a Hungarian
captain followed a thief into Dracula's house. When Dracula discovered
the intruders he killed the Hungarian officer rather than the thief. When
questioned about his actions by the king Dracula answered that a gentlemen
does not enter the presence of a great ruler without an introduction --
had the captain followed proper protocol he would not have incurred the
wrath of the prince.
In
1476 Dracula was again ready to make another bid for power. Dracula and
Prince Stephen Bathory of Transylvania invaded Wallachia with a mixed force
of Transylvanians, a few dissatisfied Wallachian boyars and a contingent
of Moldavians sent by Dracula's cousin, Prince Stephen the Great of Moldavia.
Dracula's brother, Radu the Handsome, had died a couple of years earlier
and been replaced on the Wallachian throne by another Turkish candidate,
Basarab the Old, a member of the Danesti clan. At the approach of Dracula's
army Basarab and his coherents fled, some to the protection of the Turks,
others to the shelter of the mountains. After placing Dracula on the throne
Stephen Bathory and the bulk of Dracula's forces returned to Transylvania,
leaving Dracula's tactical position very weak. Dracula had little time
to gather support before a large Turkish army entered Wallachia determined
to return Basarab to the throne. Dracula's cruelties over the years had
alienated the boyars who felt they had a better chance of surviving under
Prince Basarab. Apparently, even the peasants, tired of the depredations
of the Impaler, abandoned him to his fate. Dracula was forced to march
to meet the Turks with the small forces at his disposal, somewhat less
than four thousand men.
Dracula
was killed in battle against the Turks near the small town of Bucharest
in December of 1476. Some reports indicated that he was assassinated by
disloyal Wallachian boyars just as he was about to sweep the Turks from
the field. Other accounts have Dracula falling in defeat, surrounded by
the bodies of his loyal Moldavian bodyguard (the troops loaned by Prince
Stephen of Moldavia remained with Dracula after Stephen Bathory returned
to Transylvania). Still other reports claim that Dracula, at the moment
of victory, was accidentally struck down by one of his own men. Dracula's
body was decapitated by the Turks and his head sent to Constantinople where
the sultan had it displayed on a stake as proof that the Impaler was dead.
He was reportedly buried at Snagov, an island monastery located near Bucharest.
==
IV. Atrocities ==
More
than anything else the historical Dracula is known for his inhuman cruelty.
Impalement was Dracula's preferred method of torture and execution. Impalement
was and is one of the most gruesome ways of dying imaginable. Dracula usually
had a horse attached to each of the victim's legs and a sharpened stake
was gradually forced into the body. The end of the stake was usually oiled
and care was taken that the stake not be too sharp; else the victim might
die too rapidly from shock. Normally the stake was inserted into the body
through the buttocks and was often forced through the body until it emerged
from the mouth. However, there were many instances where victims were impaled
through other bodily orifices or through the abdomen or chest. Infants
were sometimes impaled on the stake forced through their mothers' chests.
The records indicate that victims were sometimes impaled so that they hung
upside down on the stake.
Death
by impalement was slow and painful. Victims sometimes endured for hours
or days. Dracula often had the stakes arranged in various geometric patterns.
The most common pattern was a ring of concentric circles in the outskirts
of the city that was his target. The height of the spear indicated the
rank of the victim. The decaying corpses were often left up for months.
It was once reported that an invading Turkish army turned back in fright
when it encountered thousands of rotting corpses impaled on the banks of
the Danube. In 1461 Mohammed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, a man
not noted for his squeamishness, returned to Constantinople after being
sickened by the sight of twenty thousand impaled corpses rotting outside
of Dracula's capital of Tirgoviste. The warrior sultan turned command of
the campaign against Dracula over to subordinates and returned to Constantinople.
Thousands
were often impaled at a single time. Ten thousand were impaled in the Transylvanian
city of Sibiu (where Dracula had once lived) in 1460. In 1459, on St. Bartholomew's
Day, Dracula had thirty thousand of the merchants and boyars of the Transylvanian
city of Brasov impaled. One of the most famous woodcuts of the period shows
Dracula feasting amongst a forest of stakes and their grisly burdens outside
Brasov while a nearby executioner cuts apart other victims.
Impalement
was Dracula's favorite but by no means his only method of torture. The
list of tortures employed by this cruel prince reads like an inventory
of hell's tools: nails in heads, cutting off of limbs, blinding, strangulation,
burning, cutting off of noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs (especially
in the case of women), scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or
to wild animals and boiling alive.
No
one was immune to Dracula's attentions. His victims included women and
children, peasants and great lords, ambassadors from foreign powers and
merchants. However, the vast majority of his victims came from the merchants
and boyars of Transylvania and his own Wallachia. Many have attempted to
justify Dracula's actions on the basis nascent nationalism and political
necessity. Many of the merchants in Transylvania and Wallachia were Saxons
who were seen as parasites, preying upon the Romanian natives of Wallachia,
while the boyars had proven their disloyalty time and time again. Dracula's
own father and older brother were murdered by unfaithful boyars. However,
many of Dracula's victims were Wallachians and few deny that he derived
a perverted pleasure from his actions.
Dracula
began his reign of terror almost as soon as he came to power. His first
significant act of cruelty may have been motivated by a desire of revenge
as well as a need to solidify his power. Early in his main reign he gave
a feast for his boyars and their families to celebrate Easter. Dracula
was well aware that many of these same nobles were part of the conspiracy
that led to his father's assassination and the burying alive of his elder
brother, Mircea. Many had also played a role in the overthrow of numerous
Wallachian princes. During the feast Dracula asked his noble guests how
many princes had ruled during their life times. All of the nobles present
had out lived several princes. One answered that at least thirty princes
had held the throne during his life. None had seen less than seven reigns.
Dracula immediately had all the assembled nobles arrested. The older boyars
and their families were impaled on the spot. The younger and healthier
nobles and their families were marched north from Tirgoviste to the ruins
of a castle in the mountains above the Arges River. Dracula was determined
to rebuild this ancient fortress as his own stronghold and refuge. The
enslaved boyars and their families were forced to labor for months rebuilding
the old castle with materials from another nearby ruin. According to the
reports they labored until the clothes fell off their bodies and then were
forced to continue working naked. Very few of the old gentry survived the
ordeal of building Castle Dracula.
Throughout
his reign Dracula systematically eradicated the old boyar class of Wallachia.
The old boyars had repeatedly undermined the power of the prince during
previous reigns and had been responsible for the violent overthrow of several
princes. Apparently Dracula was determined that his own power be on a modern
and thoroughly secure footing. In the place of the executed boyars Dracula
promoted new men from among the free peasantry and the middle class; men
who would be loyal only to their prince. Many of Dracula's acts of cruelty
can be interpreted as efforts to strengthen and modernize the central government
at the expense of feudal powers of the nobility and great towns.
Dracula
was also constantly on guard against the adherents of the Danesti clan.
Some of his raids into Transylvania may have been efforts to capture would-be
princes of the Danesti. Several members of the Danesti clan died at Dracula's
hands. Vladislav II was murdered soon after Dracula came to power in 1456.
Another Danesti prince was captured during one of Dracula's forays into
Transylvania. Thousands of the citizens of the town that had sheltered
his rival were impaled by Dracula. The captured Danesti prince was forced
to read his own funeral oration while kneeling before an open grave before
his execution.
Dracula's
atrocities against the people of Wallachia were usually attempts to enforce
his own moral code upon his country. He appears to have been particularly
concerned with female chastity. Maidens who lost their virginity, adulterous
wives and unchaste widows were all targets of Dracula's cruelty. Such women
often had their sexual organs cut out or their breasts cut off. They were
also often impaled through the vagina on red-hot stakes that were forced
through the body until they emerged from the mouth. One report tells of
the execution of an unfaithful wife. Dracula had the woman's breasts cut
off, then she was skinned and impaled in a square in Tirgoviste with her
skin lying on a nearby table. Dracula also insisted that his people be
honest and hard working. Merchants who cheated their customers were likely
to find themselves mounted on a stake beside common thieves.
==
V. Anecdotal Evidence ==
Much
of the information we have about Vlad III comes from pamphlets published
in Germany and Russia after his death. The German pamphlets appeared shortly
after Dracula's death and, at least initially, may have been politically
inspired. At that time Matthias Corvinus of Hungary was seeking to bolster
his own reputation in the Holy Roman Empire and may have intended the early
pamphlets as justification of his less than vigorous support of his vassal.
The pamphlets were also a form of mass entertainment in a society where
the printing press was just coming into widespread use. Much like the subject
matter of the supermarket tabloids of today, the cruel life of the Wallachian
tyrant was easily sensationalized. The pamphlets were reprinted numerous
times over the thirty or so years following Dracula's death -- strong proof
of their popularity.
The
German pamphlets painted Dracula as an inhuman monster who terrorized the
land and butchered innocents with sadistic glee. The Russian pamphlets
took a somewhat different view. The princes of Moscow were at that time
just beginning to build the basis of what would become the autocracy of
the czars. They were also having considerable trouble with disloyal, often
treasonous boyars. In Russia, Dracula was presented as a cruel but just
prince whose actions were directed toward the greater good of his people.
Despite the differences in interpretation the pamphlets, regardless of
their land of origin, agree remarkably well as to specifics. The level
of agreement between the various pamphlets has led most historians to conclude
that at least the broad outlines of the events covered actually occurred.
Romanian
verbal tradition provides another important source for the life of Vlad
Dracula. Legends and tales concerning the Impaler have remained a part
of folklore among the Romanian peasantry. These tales have been passed
down from generation to generation for five hundred years. Through constant
retelling they have become somewhat garbled and confused and they are gradually
being forgotten by the younger generations. However, they still provide
valuable information about Dracula and his relationship with his own people.
Many of the tales contained in the pamphlets are also found in the verbal
tradition, though with a somewhat different emphasis. Among the Romanian
peasantry Dracula is remembered as a just prince who defended his people
from foreigners, whether those foreigners be Turkish invaders or German
merchants. He is also remembered as somewhat of a champion of the common
man against the oppression of the boyars. Dracula's fierce insistence on
honesty is a central part of the verbal tradition. Many of the anecdotes
contained in the pamphlets and in the verbal tradition demonstrate the
prince's efforts to eliminate crime and dishonesty from his domain. However,
despite the more positive interpretation, the Romanian verbal tradition
also remembers Dracula as an exceptionally cruel and often capricious ruler.
There
are several events that are common to all the pamphlets, regardless of
their nation of origin. Many of these events are also found in the Romanian
verbal tradition. Specific details may vary among the different versions
of these anecdotes but the general course of events usually agrees to a
remarkable extent. For example, in some versions the foreign ambassadors
received by Dracula at Tirgoviste are Florentine, in others they are Turkish.
The nature of their offense against the Prince also varies from version
to version. However, all versions agree that Dracula, in response to some
real or imagined insult, had their hats nailed to their heads. Some of
the sources view Dracula's actions as justified, others view his acts as
crimes of wanton and senseless cruelty. There are about nine anecdotes
that are almost universal in the Dracula literature.
(1)
The
Golden Cup
Dracula
was known throughout his land for his fierce insistence on honesty and
order. Thieves seldom dared practice their trade within Dracula's domain
-- they knew that the stake awaited any who were caught. Dracula was so
confident in the effectiveness of his law that he placed a golden cup on
display in the central square of Tirgoviste. The cup was never stolen and
remained entirely unmolested throughout Dracula's reign.
(2)
The
Foreign Merchant
A
merchant from a foreign land once visited Dracula's capital of Tirgoviste.
Aware of the reputation of Dracula's land for honesty, he left a treasure-laden
cart unguarded in the street over night. Returning to his wagon in the
morning, the merchant was shocked to find 160 golden ducats missing. When
the merchant complained of his loss to the prince, Dracula assured the
him that his money would be returned and invited him to remain in the palace
that night. Dracula then issued a proclamation to the city -- find the
thief and return the money or the city will be destroyed. During the night
he ordered that 160 ducats plus one extra be taken from his own treasury
and placed in the merchant's cart. On returning to his cart in the morning
and counting his money the merchant discovered the extra ducat. The merchant
returned to Dracula and reported that his money had indeed been returned
plus an extra ducat. Meanwhile the thief had been captured and turned over
to the prince's guards along with the stolen money. Dracula ordered the
thief impaled and informed the merchant that if he had not reported the
extra ducat he would have been impaled alongside the thief.
(3)
The
Two Monks
There
are several versions of this anecdote. In some the two monks were from
a Catholic monastery in Wallachia or wandering Catholic monks from a foreign
land. In either case Catholic monks would be viewed as representatives
of a foreign power by Dracula. In other versions of the story the monks
were from a Romanian Orthodox establishment (the native church of Wallachia).
Dracula's motivation also varies considerably among the different versions
of the story.
All
versions of the story agree that two monks visited Dracula in his palace
at Tirgoviste. Curious to see the reaction of the churchmen, Dracula showed
them the rows of impaled corpses in the courtyard. When asked their opinions
of his actions by the prince, one of the monks responded, 'You are appointed
by God to punish evil- doers.' The other monk had the moral courage to
condemn the cruel prince. In the version of the story most common in the
German pamphlets, Dracula rewarded the sycophantic monk and impaled the
honest monk. In the version found in the Russian pamphlets and in the Romanian
verbal tradition Dracula rewarded the honest monk for his integrity and
courage and impaled the sycophant for his dishonesty.
(4)
The
Polish Nobleman
Benedict
de Boithor, a Polish nobleman in the service of the King of Hungary, visited
Dracula at Tirgoviste in September of 1458. At dinner one evening Dracula
ordered a golden spear brought and set up directly in from of the royal
envoy. Dracula then asked the envoy why he thought this spear had been
set up. Benedict replied that he imagined that some boyar had offended
the prince and that Dracula intended to honor him. Dracula then responded
that he had, in fact, had the spear set up in honor of his noble, Polish
guest. The Pole then responded that had he done anything to deserve death
that Dracula should do as he thought best. He further asserted that in
that case Dracula would not be responsible for his death, rather he would
be responsible for his own death for incurring the displeasure of the prince.
Dracula was greatly pleased by this answer and showered the man with gifts
while declaring that had he answered in any other manner he would have
been immediately impaled.
(5)
The
Foreign Ambassadors
There
are at least two versions of this story in the literature. As with the
story of the two monks, one version is common in the German pamphlets and
views Dracula's actions unfavorably while the other version is common in
eastern Europe and sees Dracula's actions in a much more favorable light.
In both versions ambassadors of a foreign power visit Dracula's court at
Tirgoviste. When granted an audience with the prince the envoys refused
to remove their hats as was the custom when in the presence of the prince
in Wallachia. Angered at this sign of disrespect Dracula had the ambassadors'
hats nailed to their heads so that they might never remove them.
In
the German version of the story the envoys are Florentine and refused to
remove their hats to demonstrate their superiority. When Dracula asked
the ambassadors why they wouldn't remove their hats they responded that
such was not their custom and that they wouldn't remove their hats, even
for the Holy Roman emperor. Dracula immediately had their hats nailed to
their heads so that they might never come off and had the ambassadors ejected
from his court. In Germany and the West, where the concept of diplomatic
immunity was at least given lip service, this was held to be an act of
barbarity against the representatives of a friendly power.
In
the version of the story common in the east, the envoys are Turkish. When
ushered into the presence of the prince, the Turks refused to remove their
Phrygian caps. When questioned they answered that it was not the custom
of their fathers to remove their hats. Dracula then ordered their hats
nailed to their heads with three nails so that they might never have to
break such an excellent tradition. The envoys were then sent back to the
sultan. In the east this was held to bee a courageous act of defiance in
the face of the power of the Ottoman sultan. It should also be noted that
the nailing of hats to the heads of those who displeased a monarch was
not an unknown act in eastern Europe. Apparently this method was occasionally
used by the princes of Moscow when faced by unpleasant envoys.
(6)
Dracula's
Mistress
Dracula
once had a mistress who lived in a house in the back streets of Tirgoviste.
This woman apparently loved the prince to distraction and was always anxious
to please him. Dracula was often moody and depressed and the woman made
every effort to lighten her lover's burdens. Once, when Dracula was particularly
depressed, the woman dared tell him a lie in an effort to cheer him up;
she told him that she was with child. Dracula warned the woman not to joke
about such matters but she insisted on the truth of her claim despite her
knowledge of the prince's feelings about dishonesty. Dracula had the woman
examined by the bath matrons to determine the veracity of her claim. When
informed that the woman was lying Dracula drew his knife and cut her open
from the groin to her breasts while proclaiming his desire for the world
to see where he had been. Dracula then left the woman to die in agony.
(7)
The
Lazy Woman
Dracula
once noticed a man working in the fields while wearing a too short caftan.
The prince stopped and asked the man whether or not he had a wife. When
the man answered in the affirmative Dracula had the woman brought before
him and asked her how she spent her days. The poor, frightened woman stated
that she spent her days washing, baking and sewing. The prince pointed
out her husband's short caftan as evidence of her laziness and dishonesty
and ordered her impaled despite her husband's protestations that he was
well satisfied with his wife. Dracula then ordered another woman to marry
the peasant but admonished her to work hard or she would suffer her predecessor's
fate.
(8)
The
Nobleman with the Keen Sense of Smell
On
St. Bartholomew's Day in 1459 Dracula caused thirty thousand of the merchants
and nobles of the Transylvanian city of Brasov to be impaled. In order
that he might better enjoy the results of his orders, the prince commanded
that his table be set up and that his boyars join him for a feast amongst
the forest of impaled corpses. While dining, Dracula noticed that one of
his boyars was holding his nose in an effort to alleviate the terrible
smell of clotting blood and emptied bowels. Dracula then ordered the sensitive
nobleman impaled on a stake higher than all the rest so that he might be
above the stench.
In
another version of this story the sensitive nobleman is an envoy of the
Transylvanian cities of Brasov and Sibiu sent to appeal to the cruel Wallachian
to spare those cities. While hearing the nobleman's appeal Dracula walked
amongst the stakes and their grisly burdens. Some of the victims still
lived. Nearly overcome by the smell of drying blood and human wastes the
nobleman asked the prince why he walked amidst the awful stench. Dracula
then asked the envoy if he found the stench oppressive. The envoy, seeing
an opportunity to ingratiate himself with Dracula, responded that his only
concern was for the health and welfare of the prince. Dracula, angered
at the nobleman's dishonesty ordered him impaled on the spot on a very
high stake so that he might be above the offending odors.
(9)
The
Burning of the Sick and Poor
Dracula
was very concerned that all his subjects work and contribute to the common
welfare. He once noticed that the poor, vagrants, beggars and cripples
had become very numerous in his land. Consequently, he issued an invitation
to all the poor and sick in Wallachia to come to Tirgoviste for a great
feast, claiming that no one should go hungry in his land. As the poor and
crippled arrived in the city they were ushered into a great hall where
a fabulous feast was prepared for them. The prince's guests ate and drank
late into the night, when Dracula himself made an appearance. 'What else
do you desire? Do you want to be without cares, lacking nothing in this
world,' asked the prince. When they responded positively Dracula ordered
the hall boarded up and set on fire. None escaped the flames. Dracula explained
his action to the boyars by claiming that he did this, 'in order that they
represent no further burden to other men so that no one will be poor in
my realm.'
==
VI. Dracula and the Vampire Myth ==
It
is unclear why Bram Stoker chose this fifteenth century Romanian prince
as the model for his fictional vampire. Stoker was friends with a Hungarian
professor from Buda-Pest and many have suggested that Dracula's name might
have been mentioned by this friend. Regardless of how the name came to
Stoker's attention the cruel history of the Impaler would have readily
loaned itself to Stoker's purposes. The events of Dracula's life were played
out in a region of the world that was still basically medieval even in
Stoker's time. The Balkans had only recently shaken off the Turkish yoke
when Stoker started working on his novel and the superstitions of the Dark
Ages were still prevalent. Transylvania had long been a part of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire but it too had endured a long period of Turkish domination and its
culture was still largely medieval.
The
legend of the vampire was and still is deeply rooted in that region. There
have always been vampire-like creatures in the mythologies of many cultures.
However, the vampire, as he became known in Europe and hence America, largely
originated in the Slavic and Greek lands of eastern Europe. A veritable
epidemic of vampirism swept through eastern Europe beginning in the late
seventeenth century and continuing through the eighteenth century. The
number of reported cases of rose dramatically in the Hungary and the Balkans.
From the Balkans the plague spread westward into Germany, Italy, France,
England and Spain. Travellers returning from the Balkans brought with them
tales of the undead, igniting an interest in the vampire that has continued
to this day. Philosophers in the West began to study the phenomenon. It
was during this period that Dom Augustin Calmet wrote his famous treatise
on vampirism in Hungary. It was also during this period that authors and
playwrights first began to explore the vampire myth. Stoker's novel was
merely the culminating work of a long series of works that were inspired
by the reports coming from the Balkans and Hungary.
Given
the history of the vampire myth in Europe it is perhaps natural that Stoker
should place his great vampire in the heart of the region that gave birth
to the myth. Once Stoker had determined on a locality Vlad Dracula would
stand out as one of the most notorious rulers of the selected region. He
was obscure enough that few would recognize the name and those who did
would know him for his acts of brutal cruelty; Dracula was a natural candidate
for vampirism. Why Stoker chose to relocate his vampire from Wallachia
to the north of Transylvania remains a mystery.
The
vampire myth is still wide-spread in eastern Europe. Similarly the name
of Dracula is still remembered in the Romanian oral tradition but that
is the end of any connection between Dracula and the vampire myth in folklore.
Outside of Stoker's novel the name of Dracula was never linked with the
myth of the vampire. Despite his inhuman cruelty, in Romania Dracula is
remembered as a national hero who resisted the Turkish conquerors and asserted
Romanian national sovereignty against the powerful Hungarian kingdom.